Despite much literature pointing to the saliency of self-perceptions of aging (SPA) to aging processes, limited research offers empirical analysis on what shapes SPA. In order to identify possible antecedents to SPA, we conducted an exploratory analysis to analyze whether two future-oriented constructs—optimism and self-efficacy associated with possible selves—were associated with SPA. We ran hierarchical linear regressions, with optimism and self-efficacy of possible selves predicting SPA among 244 middle-aged and older adults. Higher optimism, higher self-efficacy to achieve hoped-for selves, and higher self-efficacy to avoid feared selves were associated with higher overall SPA. Results from our study suggest that how someone appraises their future older self impacts how they perceive their current older self.
BanduraA. (1989). Regulation of cognitive processes through perceived self-efficacy. Developmental Psychology, 25(5), 729–735.doi:10.1037/0012-1649.25.5.729
2.
BolkanC.HookerK.CoehloD. (2014). Possible selves and depressive symptoms in later life. Research on Aging, 37(1), 41–62.doi:10.1177/016402751352055725651550
3.
BussoD. S.VolmertA.Kendall-TaylorN. (2019). Reframing aging: Effect of a short-term framing intervention on implicit measures of age bias. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 74(4), 559–564.doi:10.1093/geronb/gby08029939328
4.
ChopikW. J.KimE. S.SmithJ. (2015). Changes in optimism are associated with changes in health over time among older adults. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(7), 814–822.doi:10.1177/194855061559019927114753
5.
Dark-FreudemanA.WestR. L. (2016). Possible selves and self-regulatory beliefs: Exploring the relationship between health selves, health efficacy, and psychological well-being. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 82(2-3), 139–165.doi:10.1177/009141501562766626843522
6.
DiehlM. K.WahlH.-W. (2010). Awareness of age-related change: Examination of a (mostly) unexplored concept. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 65B(3), 340–350.doi:10.1093/geronb/gbp11020008026
7.
DiehlM.WahlH.-W.BarrettA. E.BrothersA. F.MicheM.MontepareJ. M.WesterhofG. J.WurmS. (2014). Awareness of aging: Theoretical considerations on an emerging concept. Developmental Review, 34(2), 93–113.doi:10.1016/j.dr.2014.01.00124958998
8.
FaulF.ErdfelderE.LangA.-G.BuchnerA. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191.doi:10.3758/BF03193146
9.
FergusonS. J.GoodwinA. D. (2010). Optimism and well-being in older adults: The mediating role of social support and perceived control. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 71(1), 43–68.doi:10.2190/AG.71.1.c20718232
10.
FrazierL. D.HookerK. (2006). Possible selves in adult development: Linking theory and research. InDunkelC.KerpelmanJ. (Eds.), Possible selves: Theory, research, and application (pp.41–59). Nova Science.
11.
FrazierL. D.JohnsonP. M.GonzalezG. K.KafkaC. L. (2002). Psychosocial influences on possible selves: A comparison of three cohorts of older adults. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26(4), 308–317.doi:10.1080/01650250143000184
12.
HookerK. (1999). Possible selves in adulthood: Incorporating teleonomic relevance into studies of the self. InHessT. M.Blanchard-FieldsF. (Eds.), Social cognition and aging (pp.97–122). Academic Press.
13.
HookerK. (2002). New directions for research in personality and aging: A comprehensive model for linking levels, structures, and processes. Journal of Research in Personality, 36(4), 318–334.doi:10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00012-0
14.
HookerK.McAdamsD. P. (2003). Personality reconsidered: A new agenda for aging research. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58(6), P296–P304.doi:10.1093/geronb/58.6.P29614614110
15.
HookerK.ChounS.MejíaS.PhamT.MetoyerR. (2013). A microlongitudinal study of the linkages among personality traits, self-regulation, and stress in older adults. Research in Human Development, 10(1), 26–46.doi:10.1080/15427609.2013.760258
16.
HookerK.MejíaS. T.PhibbsS.TanE. J.StevensJ. (2019). Effects of age discrimination on self-perceptions of aging and cancer risk behaviors. The Gerontologist, 59(Suppl_1), S28–S37.doi:10.1093/geront/gny183
17.
HoppmannC. A.GerstorfD.SmithJ.KlumbP. L. (2007). Linking possible selves and behavior: Do domain-specific hopes and fears translate into daily activities in very old age?The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 62(2), P104–P111.doi:10.1093/geronb/62.2.P10417379670
18.
HudsonN. W.FraleyR. C. (2015). Volitional personality trait change: Can people choose to change their personality traits?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(3), 490–507.doi:10.1037/pspp000002125822032
19.
JungS.ChamH.SiedleckiK. L.JoppD. S. (2019). Measurement invariance and developmental trajectories of multidimensional self-perceptions of aging in middle-aged and older adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, gbz099.doi:10.1093/geronb/gbz09931497849
KlusmannV.SproesserG.WolffJ. K.RennerB. (2019). Positive self-perceptions of aging promote healthy eating behavior across the life span via social-cognitive processes. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 74(5), 735–744.doi:10.1093/geronb/gbx13929186555
22.
KoH.-J.MejíaS.HookerK. (2014). Social possible selves, self-regulation, and social goal progress in older adulthood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38(3), 219–227.doi:10.1177/0165025413512063
23.
KornadtA. E.HessT. M.RothermundK. (2020). Domain-specific views on aging and preparation for age-related changes—development and validation of three brief scales. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 75(2), 303–307.
24.
KornadtA. E.RothermundK. (2012). Internalization of age stereotypes into the self-concept via future self-views: A general model and domain-specific differences. Psychology and Aging, 27(1), 164–172.doi:10.1037/a002511021875214
25.
KornadtA. E.VossP.RothermundK. (2015). Hope for the best, prepare for the worst? Future self-views and preparation for age-related changes. Psychology and Aging, 30(4), 967–976.doi:10.1037/pag000004826302028
26.
KornadtA. E.VossP.RothermundK. (2017). Age stereotypes and self-views revisited: Patterns of internalization and projection processes across the life span. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 72(4), 582–592.
27.
Kotter-GrühnD. (2015). Changing negative views of aging: Implications for intervention and translational research. Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 35(1), 167–186.doi:10.1891/0198-8794.35.167
28.
Kotter-GrühnD.HessT. M. (2012). The impact of age stereotypes on self-perceptions of aging across the adult lifespan. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 67(5), 563–571.doi:10.1093/geronb/gbr15322367710
29.
Kotter-GrühnD.Kleinspehn-AmmerlahnA.GerstorfD.SmithJ. (2009). Self-perceptions of aging predict mortality and change with approaching death: 16-year longitudinal results from the Berlin aging study. Psychology and Aging, 24(3), 654–667.doi:10.1037/a001651019739922
30.
Kotter-GrühnD.KornadtA. E.StephanY. (2016). Looking beyond chronological age: Current knowledge and future directions in the study of subjective age. Gerontology, 62(1), 86–93.doi:10.1159/000438671
31.
LachmanM. E.AgrigoroaeiS. (2010). Promoting functional health in midlife and old age: Long-term protective effects of control beliefs, social support, and physical exercise. PLoS One, 5(10), e13297.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.001329720949016
32.
LangF. R.CarstensenL. L. (2002). Time counts: Future time perspective, goals, and social relationships. Psychology and Aging, 17(1), 125–139.doi:10.1037/0882-7974.17.1.12511931281
33.
LawtonM. P. (1975). The Philadelphia geriatric center morale scale: A revision. Journal of Gerontology, 30(1), 85–89.doi:10.1093/geronj/30.1.851109399
34.
LevyB. R.SladeM. D.ChangE.-S.KannothS.WangS.-Y. (2020). Ageism amplifies cost and prevalence of health conditions. The Gerontologist, 60(1), 174–181.doi:10.1093/geront/gny13130423119
35.
LevyB. R.SladeM. D.KunkelS. R.KaslS. (2002). Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(2), 261–270.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.26112150226
McAvayG. J.SeemanT. E.RodinJ. (1996). A longitudinal study of change in domain-specific self-efficacy among older adults. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 51(5), P243–P253.doi:10.1093/geronb/51B.5.P2438809000
38.
MontepareJ. M.LachmanM. E. (1989). “You’re only as old as you feel”: Self-perceptions of age, fears of aging, and life satisfaction from adolescence to old age. Psychology and Aging, 4(1), 73–78.doi:10.1037/0882-7974.4.1.732803614
39.
NuttinJ. (1985). Future time perspective and motivation: Theory and research method. Leuven University Press.
40.
RothermundK.KornadtA. E. (2015). Views on aging: Domain-specific approaches and implications for developmental regulation. Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 35(1), 121–144.
41.
ScheierM. F.CarverC. S.BridgesM. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the life orientation test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(6), 1063–1078.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.10637815302
42.
SmithJ.FreundA. M. (2002). The dynamics of possible selves in old age. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57(6), P492–P500.doi:10.1093/geronb/57.6.P49212426431
43.
SmithJ. L.BryantF. B. (2019). Enhancing positive perceptions of aging by savoring life lessons. Aging & Mental Health, 23(6), 762–770.doi:10.1080/13607863.2018.145084029553804
44.
TovelH.CarmelS.RaveisV. H. (2019). Relationships among self-perception of aging, physical functioning, and self-efficacy in late life. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 74(2), 212–221.doi:10.1093/geronb/gbx05628549180
45.
TurnerS.HookerK. (2019). Possible selves theory. InGuD.DupreM. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of gerontology and population aging. Springer Press.
46.
TurnerS. G.HookerK.GeldhofG. J. (2020). Self-perceptions of aging: Factorial structure and invariance by gender. The Gerontologist, gnaa0059.doi:10.1093/geront/gnaa05932578845
47.
WesterhofG. J.MicheM.BrothersA. F.BarrettA. E.DiehlM.MontepareJ. M.WahlH.-W.WurmS. (2014). The influence of subjective aging on health and longevity: A meta-analysis of longitudinal data. Psychology and Aging, 29(4), 793–802.doi:10.1037/a003801625365689
48.
WurmS.BenyaminiY. (2014). Optimism buffers the detrimental effect of negative self-perceptions of ageing on physical and mental health. Psychology & Health, 29(7), 832–848.doi:10.1080/08870446.2014.89173724527737
49.
ZhangS.NeupertS. D. (2020). Within-and between-person relationships among health, awareness of aging, and control beliefs: A micro-longitudinal study. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, gbaa180.doi:10.1093/geronb/gbaa18033103197
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
