Using a sample of 593 undergraduate students, the study examined the relationship between spirituality, wisdom, and eudaimonic well-being with the purpose of testing if wisdom serves a mediating role in a directional model wherein spirituality is theorized as influencing well-being. Correlational analyses revealed that all three constructs are significantly associated. Structural equation modeling was employed and showed that wisdom acted as a partial mediator of the impact of spirituality on well-being. The study concludes with a discussion of the findings and suggestions for future research, with emphasis given to the replication of results with samples drawn from different cultures and to using longitudinal designs to better assess directional changes over time.
ArdeltM. (2004). Wisdom as an expert knowledge system: A critical review of a contemporary operationalization of an ancient concept. Human Development, 47(5), 257–285. https://doi.org/10.1159/000079154
2.
ArdeltM. (2016). Disentangling the relations between wisdom and different types of well-being in old age: Findings from a short-term longitudinal study. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17, 1963–1984. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-015-9680-2
3.
Aristotle. (2002). Nicomachean ethics (RoweC.BroadieS. Trans.). Oxford University Press.
4.
BangenK. J.MeeksT. W.JesteD. V. (2013). Defining and assessing wisdom: A review of the literature. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 21(12), 1254–1266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2012.11.020
5.
BartonY. A.MillerL. (2015). Spirituality and positive psychology go hand in hand: An investigation of multiple empirically derived profiles and related protective benefits. Journal of Religion and Health, 54(3), 829–843. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-015-0045-2
6.
BergsmaA.ArdeltM. (2012). Self-reported wisdom and happiness: An empirical investigation. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13(3), 481–499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-011-9275-5
7.
BorgesC. C.dos SantosP. R.AlvesP. M.CustódioR.BorgesM.LucchettiG.BarbosaM. A.PortoC. C.FernandesM. R. (2021). Association between spirituality/religiousness and quality of life among healthy adults: A systematic review. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 19, 246. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-021-01878-7
8.
BrownS. C. (2004). Learning across campus: How college facilitates the development of wisdom. Journal of College Student Development, 45(2), 134–148. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2004.0020
9.
BrownS. C.GreeneJ. A. (2006). The wisdom development scale: Translating the conceptual to the concrete. Journal of College Student Development, 47(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2006.0002
10.
BrugmanG. M. (2000). Wisdom: Source of narrative coherence and eudaimonia. Eubron.
11.
CurnowT. (2008). Introduction: Sophia’s world: Episodes from the history of wisdom. In FerrariM.PotworowskiG. (Eds.), Teaching for wisdom: Cross-cultural perspectives on fostering wisdom (pp. 1–19). Springer.
12.
CvetekR.CvetekM. (2018). The Expressions of Spirituality Revised: Psychometric evaluation of the Slovene-language version. Bogoslovni Vestnik/Theological Quarterly, 78, 1087–1100.
13.
DavisE. B.WorthingtonE.SchnitkerS. (Eds.). (2023). Handbook of positive psychology, religion, and spirituality. Springer.
14.
DeeganJ.Jr. (1978). On the occurrence of standardized regression coefficients greater than one. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 38(4), 873–888. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447803800404
15.
DeRobertisE. M.BlandA. M. (2021). Humanistic and positive psychologies: The continuing narrative after two decades. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/00221678211008353
16.
ElkinsD. N.HedstromL. J.HughesL. L.LeafJ. A.SaundersC. (1988). Toward a humanistic-phenomenological spirituality: Definition, description, and measurement. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 28(4), 5–18.
17.
ElmerL. D.MacDonaldD. A.FriedmanH. L. (2003). Transpersonal psychology, physical health and mental health: Theory, research, and practice. The Humanistic Psychologist, 31(2–3), 159–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873267.2003.9986929
18.
EnglishF.LomasT. (2022). What does spirituality mean to you? An interpretive phenomenological analysis of spirituality as a lived experience. International Journal of Existential Positive Psychology, 11(2), 1–18.
19.
ErdemA.ŞahinR.Arpacıİ.AlkanM. F. (2018, April 28–May 1). Turkish adaptation practice of the Questionnaire for Eudaimonic Well-Being [Conference presentation]. 3rd INES education and social sciences congress, Antalya, Turkey.
20.
FerrariM.KahnA.BenayonM.NeroJ. (2011). Phronesis, sophia, and hochma: Developing wisdom in Islam and Judaism. Research in Human Development, 8(2), 128–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2011.568869
21.
FrankJ. (2005). A democracy of distinction: Aristotle and the work of politics. The University of Chicago Press.
22.
FriedmanH. L. (2008). Humanistic and positive psychology: The methodological and epistemological divide. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(2), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873260802111036
23.
GabrhelV.JežekS. (2017). Factor validity and internal consistency of the Expressions of Spirituality Inventory-Revised (ESI-R): The Czech context. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 36(1), 101–109.
24.
GarssenB.VisserA.de Jager MeezenbroekE. (2016). Examining whether spirituality predicts subjective well-being: How to avoid tautology. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 8(2), 141–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/re10000025
25.
GreeneJ. A.BrownS. C. (2009). The wisdom development scale: Further validity investigations. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 68(4), 289–320. https://doi.org/10.2190/AG.68.4.b
26.
HutaV. (2012). Linking peoples’ pursuit of eudaimonia and hedonia with characteristics of their parents: Parenting styles verbally endorsed values, and role modeling. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13, 47–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-011-9249-7
27.
JesteD. V.ThomasM. L.LiuJ.DalyR. E.TuX. M.TreichlerE. B. H.PalmerB. W.LeeE. E. (2021). Is spirituality a component of wisdom? Study of 1,786 adults using expanded San Diego Wisdom Scale (Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index). Journal of Psychiatric Research, 132, 174–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.09.033
28.
JosephS.LinleyP. A.MaltbyJ. (2007). Positive psychology, religion, and spirituality. Mental Health, Religion, and Culture, 9(3), 209–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/13694670600615227
29.
JoshanlooM. (2014). Eastern conceptualizations of happiness: Fundamental differences with western views. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15, 475–493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9431-1
30.
KahnemanD.DienerE.SchwarzN. (Eds.). (1999). Well-being: Foundations of hedonic psychology. Russell Sage Foundation.
31.
KashdanT. B.NezlekJ. B. (2012). Whether, when, and how is spirituality related to well-being? Moving beyond single occasion questionnaires to understanding daily process. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(11), 1523–1535. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212454549
32.
KaufmanS. B. (2018). Self-actualizing people in the 21st century: Integration with contemporary theory and research on personality and well-being. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 63, 51–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167818809187
33.
KimH.-Y. (2013). Statistical notes for clinical researchers: Assessing normal distribution (2) using skewness and kurtosis. Restorative Dentistry & Endodontics, 38(1), 52–54. https://doi.org/10.5395/rde.2013.38.1.52
34.
KimJ. J.MorrisS.RajewiczP.FerrariM.VervaekeJ. (2023). Walk in wisdom’s path: Contributions of faith, age, and personal wisdom to ideas of cultivating wisdom. Journal of Religion, Spirituality & Aging, 35, 149–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/15528030.2022.2041532
35.
KoenigH. G. (2012). Religion, spirituality, and health: The research and clinical implications. International Scholarly Research Notices, 2012, 278730. https://doi.org/10.5402/2012/278730
36.
KoenigH. G.KingD. E.CarsonV. B. (2012). Handbook of religion and health (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
37.
LefevorG. T.DavisE. B.PaizJ. Y.SmackA. C. P. (2021). The relationship between religiousness and mental health among sexual minorities: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 147(7), 647–666. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000321
38.
LevensonM. R.AldwinC. M. (2013). The transpersonal in personal wisdom. In FerrariM.WeststrateN. M. (Eds.), The scientific study of personal wisdom: From contemplative traditions to neuroscience (pp. 213–228). Springer.
39.
LewisP. (2010). Teaching to form character: A Polanyian analysis of practical reasoning. In MargitayT. (Ed.), Knowing and being: Perspectives on the philosophy of Michael Polanyi (pp. 80–95). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
40.
MacDonaldD. A. (2000a). The Expressions of Spirituality Inventory: Test development, validation and scoring information [Unpublished test manual].
41.
MacDonaldD. A. (2000b). Spirituality: Description, measurement, and relation to the five factor model of personality. Journal of Personality, 68(1), 153–197. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00094
42.
MacDonaldD. A. (2009). Identity and spirituality: Conventional and transpersonal perspectives. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 28, 86–106.
43.
MacDonaldD. A. (2011). Spiritual identity: Individual perspectives. In SchwartzS. J.LuyckxK.VignolesV. L. (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (Vol. 1, pp. 531–544). Springer.
44.
MacDonaldD. A. (2017). Commentary on “existential well-being: Spirituality or well-being?”Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 205(3), 242–248. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000649
45.
MacDonaldD. A. (2018). Taking a closer look at well-being as a scientific construct: Delineating its conceptual nature and boundaries in relation to spirituality and existential functioning. In BrownN. J. L.LomasT.Eiroa-OrosaF. J. (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook of critical positive psychology (pp. 26–52). Routledge.
46.
MacDonaldD. A. (2023). Chapter 5: Theories of health and well-being germane to a positive psychology of religion and spirituality. In DavisE. B.WorthingtonE. L.SchnitkerS. A. (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology, religion, and spirituality (pp. 69–82). Springer.
47.
MacDonaldD. A.AlmendroM. (Eds.). (2021). Transpersonal psychology and science: An evaluation of its present status and future directions. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
48.
MacDonaldD. A.FriedmanH. J.BrewczynskiJ.HollandD.SalagameK. K. K.MohanK. K.GubrijZ. O.CheongH. W. (2015). Spirituality as a scientific construct: Testing its universality across cultures and languages. PLOS ONE, 10(3), 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117701
49.
MacDonaldD. A.FriedmanH. L. (2002). Assessment of humanistic, transpersonal, and spiritual constructs: State of the science. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 42(4), 102–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/002216702237126
50.
MacDonaldD. A.FriedmanH. L.KuentzelJ. G. (1999a). A survey of measures of spiritual and transpersonal constructs: Part one- research update. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 31(2), 137–154.
51.
MacDonaldD. A.KuentzelJ. G.FriedmanH. L. (1999b). A survey of measures of spiritual and transpersonal constructs: Part two- additional instruments. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 31(2), 155–177.
52.
MacDonaldD. A.LeClairL.HollandC. J.AlterA.FriedmanH. L. (1995). A survey of measures of transpersonal constructs. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 27(2), 171–235.
53.
McLaughlinP. T.McMinnM. R. (2022). A time for wisdom: Knowledge, detachment, tranquility, transcendence. Templeton Press.
54.
MigdalL.MacDonaldD. A. (2013). Clarifying the relation between spirituality and well-being. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 201(4), 274–280. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e318288e26a
55.
MuhamadH.RoodenburgJ.MooreD. W. (2014). The Expressions of Spirituality Inventory: Evidence for cross cultural validity in a Malaysian context. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 46(1), 58–71.
OsbeckL. M.RobinsonD. N. (2005). Philosophical theories of wisdom. In SternbergR. J.JordanJ. (Eds.), A handbook of wisdom: Psychological perspectives (pp. 61–83). Cambridge University Press.
58.
PaloutzianR.ParkC. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
59.
PargamentK. I.WongS.ExlineJ. J. (2016). Wholeness and holiness: The spiritual dimension of eudaimonics. In VittersøJ. (Ed.), Handbook of eudaimonic well-being. International handbooks of quality-of-life (pp. 379–394). Springer.
60.
ParkC. L. (2013). The meaning making model: A framework for understanding meaning, spirituality, and stress-related growth in health psychology. European Health Psychologist, 15, 40–47.
61.
ProyerR. T.LaubN. (2017). The German-language version of the Expressions of Spirituality Inventory-Revised: Adaptation and initial validation. Current Psychology, 36(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-015-9379-x
62.
RobbinsB. D. (2008). What is the good life? Positive psychology and the renaissance of humanistic psychology. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(2), 96–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873260802110988
63.
RobinsonD. N. (1990). Wisdom through the ages. In SternbergR. J. (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp. 13–24). Cambridge University Press.
64.
RobinsonS. (2008). Spirituality, ethics and care. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
65.
RyanR. M.HutaV.DeciE. L. (2008). Living well: A self-determination theory perspective on eudaimonia. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9(1), 139–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9023-4
66.
RyffC. D. (2014). Psychological well-being revisited: Advances in the science and practice of eudaimonia. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 83(1), 10–28. https://doi.org/10/1159/000353263
ŞahinR.SarıkayaY.BaloğluM. (2017). Investigation of the relationship between spiritual meaning and spirituality. Electronic Turkish Studies, 12(28), 681–702. https://doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.12470
69.
SalsmanJ. M.PustejovskyJ. E.JimH. S. L.MunozA. R.MerluzziT. V.GeorgeL.ParkC. L.DanhauerS. C.ShermanA. C.SnyderM. A.FitchettG. (2015). A meta-analytic approach to examining the correlation between religion/spirituality and mental health in cancer. Cancer, 121(21), 3769–3778. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.29350
70.
SawatzkyR.RatnerP. A.ChiuL. (2005). A meta-analysis of the relationship between spirituality and quality of life. Social Indicators Research, 72(2), 153–188. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27522199
71.
SchneiderK. J. (2014). Humanistic psychology and positive psychology need each other, and to advance, our field needs both. American Psychologist, 69(1), 92. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034852
72.
SchneiderK. J.PiersonJ. F.BugentalJ. F. T. (Eds.). (2014). The handbook of humanistic psychology: Theory, research, and practice. Sage.
73.
SchwalmF. D.ZandavalliR. B.de Castro FilhoE. D.LucchettiG. (2022). Is there a relationship between spirituality/religiosity and resilience? A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(5), 1218–1232. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320984537
74.
ShapiroS. I. (1994). Religion, spirituality, and transpersonal psychology. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 13(1), 33–41.
75.
ShermanA. C.MerluzziT.PustejovskyJ. E.ParkC. L.GeorgeL.FitchettG.JimH. S. L.MunozA. R.DanhauerS. C.SnyderM. A.SalsmanJ. M. (2015). A meta-analytic review of religious or spiritual involvement and social health among cancer patients. Cancer, 121(21), 3779–3788. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.29352
76.
SilvaL. X. L.MacDonaldD. A.CunhaD. P.FerreiraA. L. (2017). Psychometric examination of a Brazilian adaptation of the Expressions of Spirituality Inventory- Revised. Estudos de Psicologia (Natal), 22(2), 132–143.
77.
StegerM. F.FrazierP. (2005). Meaning in life: One link in the chain from religiousness to well-being. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(4), 574–582. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.574
78.
SternbergR. J.GlückJ. (Eds.). (2019). The Cambridge handbook of wisdom. Cambridge University Press.
79.
SternbergR. J.JordanJ. (Eds.). (2005). A handbook of wisdom. Psychological perspectives. Cambridge University Press.
80.
TakahashiM. (2019). Relationship between wisdom and spirituality: An expanded theoretical model with mysticism and gerotranscendence. In SternbergR. J.GlückJ. (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of wisdom (pp. 626–646). Cambridge University Press.
81.
TakahashiM.OvertonW. (2005). Cultural foundations of wisdom: An integrated developmental approach. In SternbergR. J.JordanJ. (Eds.), A handbook of wisdom: Psychological perspectives (pp. 32–60). Cambridge University Press.
82.
ThieleL. P. (2006). The heart of judgment: Practical wisdom, neuroscience, and narrative. Cambridge University Press.
83.
TrowbridgeR. H. (2005). The scientific approach of wisdom [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Union Institute & University].
84.
van ElkM. (2021). Assessing the religion-health relationship: Introduction to the meta-analysis by Garssen et al., and two commentaries. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 31(1), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2021.1877029
85.
VittersøJ. (Ed.). (2016). Handbook of eudaimonic well-being. International handbooks of quality of life. Springer.
WatermanA. S. (1990). Personal expressiveness: Philosophical and psychological foundations. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 11(1), 47–73.
88.
WatermanA. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(4), 678–691. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.4.678
89.
WatermanA. S. (2011). Eudaimonic identity theory: Identity as self-discovery. In SchwartzS. J.LuyckxK.VignolesV. L. (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (pp. 357–379). Springer.
90.
WatermanA. S. (2013). The humanistic psychology-positive psychology divide: Contrasts in philosophical foundations. American Psychologist, 68(3), 124–133. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032168
91.
WatermanA. S.SchwartzS. J.ZamboangaB. L.RavertR. D.WilliamsM. K.AgochaV. B.KimS. Y.DonnellanM. B. (2010). The Questionnaire for Eudaimonic Well-Being: Psychometric properties, demographic comparisons, and evidence of validity. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(1), 41–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760903435208
92.
WilberK. (2000). Integral psychology: Consciousness, spirit, psychology, therapy. Shambhala.
93.
WinkP.DillonM. (2013). Religion, spirituality, and personal wisdom: A tale of two types. In FerrariM.WeststrateN. M. (Eds.), The scientific study of personal wisdom: From contemplative traditions to neuroscience (pp. 165–189). Springer.
94.
WongP. T. P. (2017). Meaning-centered approach to research and therapy, second wave positive psychology, and the future of humanistic psychology. The Humanistic Psychologist, 45(3), 207–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000062
95.
WongP. T. P.BowersV. (2018). Mature happiness and global wellbeing in difficult times. In SiltonN. R. (Ed.), Scientific concepts behind happiness, kindness, and empathy in contemporary society (pp. 112–134). IGI Global.
96.
ZhangK.ShiJ.WangF.FerrariM. (2022). Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns. Current Psychology, 42, 15030–15051. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
