The Feminist Movement, technological developments and economic changes have led to sex-role confusion. This confusion has influenced thinking about sex-role identity and sex-role stereotypes, which are also seen as a form of prejudice. Counsellors, therapists, theologians, employers, spouses and others are regularly confronted by this confusion. South African sex-role stereotypes have never been assessed nor have they been compared with findings from studies in other cultures. Following a careful conceptualization, a theoretical exposition and an overview of existing instruments and research results, data on local sex-role stereotypes were collected by means of a postal survey in order to establish a baseline of the stereotypical nature and social desirability of 171 characteristics. This information is necessary for the construction of a local sex-role identity scale. The findings indicated that local stereotypes are similar to those found in 25 cultures abroad, although African and western respondents evaluated certain stereotypes differently. The implications of the findings are considered.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AntillJ.K.CunninghamJ.D.RussellG.ThompsonN.L. (1981). An Australian sex-role scale. Australian Journal of Psychology, 33, 169–183
2.
BaruchG.K.BienerL.BarnettR.C. (1987). Women and gender in research on work and family stress. American Psychologist, 42, 130–136
3.
BeachF.A. (1987). Alternative interpretations of the development of G-I/R. In ReinischJ.M.RosenblumL.A.SandersS.A. (Eds), Masculinity/femininity: Basic perspectives (pp. 29–34). New York: Oxford University Press
4.
BernS.L. (1979). Theory and measurement of androgyny. A reply to the Pedhazur-Tetenbaum and Locksley-Colten critiques. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1047–1054
5.
BernS.L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88, 354–364
6.
CookE.P. (1987). Psychological androgyny: A review of the research. The Counseling Psychologist, 15, 471–513
7.
CouperM.P.SmitP.C.StokerD.J.StrasheimA. (1988). Inleiding tot opnamemetodologie (Introduction to survey methodology). Pretoria: Human sciences Research Council. (Module 2, Training)
8.
DeauxK. (1987). Psychological constructions of masculinity and femininity. In ReinischJ.M.RosenblumL.A.SandersS.A. (Eds), Masculinity/femininity: Basic perspectives (pp. 289–303). New York: Oxford University Press
9.
DonskyH.C. (1981). The sex role identities and adjustment of English and Afrikaans speaking university students. Unpublished master's dissertation, University of Port ElizabethPort Elizabeth
10.
EllisL. (1986). Evidence of neuroandrogenic etiology of sex roles from a combined analysis of human, nonhuman primate and nonprimate mammalian studies. Personality and Individual Differences, 7, 519–552
11.
FediganL.M. (1986). The changing role of women in models of human evolution. Annual Review of Anthropology, 15, 25–66
12.
FeldmanS.S.AschenbrennerB. (1983). Impact of parenthood on various aspects of masculinity and femininity. A short-term longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 19, 278–289
13.
RaxJ. (1987). Postmodernism and gender relations in feminist theory. Signs, 12, 621–643
14.
FriedanB. (1964). The feminine mystique.London: Gollancz
15.
GerdesL.C. (1988). The developing adult (2nd ed.). Durban: Butterworths
16.
GerdesL.C.OchseR.StanderC.Van EdeD. (1981). Die ontwikkelende volwassene (The developing adult). Durban: Butterworths
17.
GrantJ. (1988). Women as managers: What they can offer to organizations. Organizational Dynamics, 16, 56–63
18.
HeilbrunA.B. (1981). Human sex-role behavior.New York: Pergamon Press
19.
HirschowitzR. (1986). The power motive and its expression in a group of English-speaking South African women.Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council. (Research report MM-118)
20.
JoffeA. (1985). Psychological gender: The relationship between sex-role and gender identity. Unpublished master's dissertation, University of Cape Town
21.
JungC.G. (1969). The structure and dynamics of the Psyche (2nd ed.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (ReadH.FordhamM.AdlerG.McGuireW. (Eds), Collected works of C.G. Jung, Vol. 8, translated by R.F.C. Hull.)
22.
KellyJ.A.WorellJ. (1977). New formulations of sex roles and androgyny: A critical review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 1101–1115
23.
Lara-CantuM.A.Navarro-AriasR. (1986). Positive and negative factors in the measurement of sex roles: Findings from a Mexican sample. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 8, 143–155
24.
MartinC.L. (1987). A ratio measure of sex stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 489–499
25.
MastD.L.HerronW.G. (1986). The sex-role antecedents scales. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 63, 27–56
26.
MoneyJ. (1987). Propaedeutics of diecious G-I/R: Theoretical foundations for understanding dimorphic gender-identity/role. In ReinischJ.M.RosenblumL.A.SandersS.A. (Eds), Masculinity/femininity: Basic perspectives (pp. 13–28). New York: Oxford University Press
MoutonJ. (1988). Basic concepts in the methodology of social sciences research.Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council. (Module 1, Training)
29.
OrlofskyJ.L.O'HeronC.A. (1987). Development of a short-form Sex Role Behavior Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 51, 267–277
30.
PrinslooC.H. (1990). 'n Kruiskulturele Studie van geslagsrolstereotipes in Suid-Afrika (A cross-cultural study of sex-role stereotypes in South Africa). Unpublished master's dissertation, University of South Africa, Pretoria
31.
PrinslooC.H. (in press). On wearing the pants or apron in the house. In MasonJ.B.RubinsteinJ.ShudaS. (Eds), From diversity to healing: Proceedings of the Biennial International Conference of the South African Institute for Marital and Family Therapy.Durban: SAIMFT. (Originally presented under the theme ‘Implications of a pan-cultural comparison of sex-role stereotypes for the study, assessment and healthy maintenance of marriage and family roles’, 2 to 4 July 1990, Broederstroom)
32.
RavinderS. (1987). Androgyny. Is it really the product of educated, middle-class western societies?Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 18, 208–220
33.
RyanG.DolphinC.LundbergU.MyrstenA.-L. (1987). Sex role patterns in an Irish student sample as measured by the Bern Sex Role Inventory (Comparisons with an American sample). Sex Roles, 17, 17–29
34.
SappingtonA.A. (1989). Adjustment: Theory, research and personal applications.Pacific Grove: Brooks Cole Publishing Co.
35.
SingerV.S. (1984). Family-functioning, sex-role ideology, psychological androgyny and self-actualization in dual-career and traditional families. Unpublished master's dissertation, University of Cape Town, Cape Town
36.
SmithC.C. (1986). Androgyny and relationship satisfaction. Unpublished master's dissertation. University of South AfricaPretoria
37.
SpenceJ.T.HelmreichR.L. (1978). Masculinity and femininity: Their psychological dimensions, correlates, and antecedents.Austin: University of Texas Press
38.
StathamA. (1987). The gender model revisited: Differences in the management styles of men and women. Sex Roles, 16, 409–429
39.
SteynA.G.W.SmitC.F.Du ToitS.H.C (1984). Moderne statistiek vir die praktyk (3e uitg.) (Modern statistics in everyday practice). Pretoria: Van Schaick
40.
StrijdomH.G. (1979). RSA — Sy mense en hulle toekoms: Maatskaplike verandering en ontwikkeling: Die gesinslewe in transisie (South Africa — Its people and their future: Social change and development: Family-life in transition). Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council. (Paper presented at a congress celebrating the tenth anniversary of the foundation of the HSRC.)
41.
TribbleR.G. (1987). Dual career marriages: Problems, satisfactions, and therapeutic considerations. Pastoral psychology, 35, 211–220
42.
Van der WaltS. (1982). Work motives of women in the retail business.Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council. (Research report MM-88.)
43.
Van der WaltS. (1987). Faktore wat die beroepsdeelname van getroude vroue beïnvloed (Factors influencing career participation among married women). Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council. (Research report MM-122.)
44.
Van RooyenJ. (1980). Women at work (A conceptualization of factors affecting female career commitment).Johannesburg: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. (Special report PERS 311.)
45.
Van RooyenJ. (1981). Female career commitment (A life-span perspective). Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of South AfricaPretoria
46.
VorsterW.S. (Ed.) (1984). Sexism and feminism in theological perspective.Pretoria: University of South Africa
47.
WardC.SethiR.R. (1986). Cross-cultural validation of the Bern Sex Role Inventory: Malaysian and South Indian research. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 17, 300–314
48.
WesselsD.M. (1971). Deeltydse werk vir getroude vroue: Vraag- en aanbodsituasie in Pretoria (Part-time employment for married women: Supply and demand situation in Pretoria). Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council. (Research report MM-22.)
49.
WesselsD.M. (1972). Die arbeidspatroon van gegradueerde huisvroue in die PWV-gebied—Deel I: Deeltydse werk (Employment patterns among graduate housewives in the PWV-region — Part I: Part-time employment). Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council. (Research report MM-31.)
50.
WesselsD.M. (1974). The employment potential of graduate housewives in the PWV-region — Part II: The careers of graduate housewives.Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council. (Research Report MM-47.)
51.
WesselsD.M. (1981). Career orientation and work commitment of university-educated women.Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council. (Research Report MM-85.)
52.
WhitleyB.E. (1987). The relationship of sex-role orientation to heterosexuals' attitudes toward homosexuals. Sex Roles, 17, 103–113
53.
WilliamsW.L. (1987). Women, men, and others: Beyond ethnocentrism in gender theory. American Behavioral Scientist, 31, 135–141
54.
WilliamsJ.E.BestD.L. (1982). Measuring sex stereotypes.Beverly Hills: Sage Publications
55.
WilliamsJ.E.DawsJ.T.BestD.L.TilquinC.WesleyF.BjerkeT. (1979). Sex-trait stereotypes in France, Germany, and Norway. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 10, 133–156
56.
WilliamsJ.E.GilesH.EdwardsJ.R.BestD.L.DawsJ.T. (1977). Sex-trait stereotypes in England, Ireland and the United States. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 16, 303–309
