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Abstract

This study investigated the effect of career construction counselling as an intervention on addressing career decision-making difficulties and enhancing career adaptability of high school students in Tanzania. The study sample consisted of 66 Form Five students (Grade 11) drawn from two public high schools in Morogoro Municipality. An intervention group of 35 students received career construction counselling, while a comparison group of 31 students continued with traditional regular classes. A quasi experimental pre- and post-test design was used to assess participants’ career decision-making difficulties and adaptability before and after intervention. The results indicated statistically significant differences between the pre- and post-test interventions, implying that the intervention decreased students’ career decision-making difficulties and increased their career adaptability. Future research could expand this line of inquiry by including larger and more diverse samples, conducting longitudinal follow-ups to examine sustained effects, and exploring the applicability of career construction counselling across different cultural and educational contexts.

Keywords

Career adaptability career construction counselling career decision-making high school students

Introduction

Choosing an appropriate career is challenging for most people (Anghel & Gati, 2019; Gati et al., 1996), particularly those at the point of transition at various stages in their lives due to changes in their work and personal lives (Maree, 2021). The changing world of work has created greater uncertainty for both current workers and students who represent the future workforce (Cardoso et al., 2018; Maree, 2019a, 2020a, 2021). This uncertainty makes it challenging to make well-informed, long-term career decisions, particularly for high school students (Maree, 2019b, 2021). For example, some students may question whether a specific career aligns with their unique traits and key life themes. In response to the dynamic changes in the world of work, theoretical frameworks in career psychology have been updated to meet the demands on people to make appropriate career decisions, adapt to the changing world of work, design successful lives and face transitions successfully (Lent & Brown, 2020; Maree, 2019a; Savickas, 2019; Savickas et al., 2009). Empirical studies on career counselling in Tanzania are scarce, particularly career construction counselling (CCC) intervention (Maree & Magere, 2023). This scarcity stems from a limited research tradition in career development psychology. Guidance and counselling services in Tanzanian schools are inconsistently implemented due to a shortage of trained career counsellors (Nkuba & Kyaruzi, 2015). These gaps highlight the need to implement and assess the effectiveness of CCC intervention in enhancing students’ career decision-making and adaptability.

Career decision-making difficulties

Career decision-making is a crucial process that high school students undertake as they navigate their educational journey and transition into the professional world (Paixão & Gamboa, 2017). It involves steps and processes that help people make informed and rational career choices (Gati et al., 1996). The choice made during this stage (high school) can significantly impact their future lives, shaping their career journey, job satisfaction, and overall well-being (Kazi & Akhlaq, 2017). However, many people face difficulties in making career decisions, posing challenges as they may experience confusion and anxiety due to increased possible career options in the world of work (Gati et al., 1996; Vaiopoulou et al., 2019). These feelings may lead to career decision-making difficulties, especially when the information available is not enough and reliable or when people’ decision-making skills are poor. When these difficulties are not addressed promptly, students might make inappropriate career decisions that might affect their well-being, standard of living, and job satisfaction (Akpochafo, 2020; Gati & Amir, 2010; Gati et al., 2010; Vaiopoulou et al., 2019). Considering the repercussions of difficulties in career decision-making, literature has clarified two types of difficulties: career indecision and indecisiveness (Gati et al., 1996; Gati & Saka, 2001). Career indecision is usually a normative developmental stage within the career decision-making process, characterised by various cognitive difficulties (Udayar et al., 2020) such as lack of information, limited decision-making skills and uncertainty about career options

In contrast, indecisiveness is viewed as a more chronic condition in the personal traits, often linked to emotional and personality-related difficulties, including anxiety, low self-efficacy, fear of failure, and poor self-worth (Gati & Saka, 2001; Levin et al., 2020; Saka et al., 2008; Udayar et al., 2020). Because each type of difficulty is distinct, addressing them effectively requires different forms of intervention. For instance, people experiencing career indecision (developmental decision-making difficulties) lack information on how to choose a career, what careers and fields of study involve, and what personalities are connected with different careers (Maree, 2020b, 2020c). This article addresses both types of difficulties (indecision and indecisiveness), necessitating the integration of the psychoeducational and psychosocial components in the present CCC intervention, which is both theoretically grounded and empirically supported (Savickas, 2013, 2019). Anghel and Gati (2019) emphasise that cognitive interventions alone are insufficient when emotional distress or personality traits underlie indecisiveness. Effective intervention, therefore, requires addressing both cognitive and emotional dimensions of decision-making. From this perspective, the inclusion of psychoeducational components within the CCC intervention is justified as they equip participants with the knowledge, skills, and cognitive strategies necessary for informed decision-making (Amir & Gati, 2006). On the other hand, the psychosocial component is designed to enhance participants’ emotional regulation, self-concept development, and resilience. Drawing from the CCC approach (Maree, 2020a, 2020b; Savickas, 2019), psychosocial activities focus on narrative exploration, value clarification, and reflective dialogue. These processes enable people to construct coherent life stories, strengthen their sense of identity, and cultivate adaptive coping mechanisms when confronted with uncertainty or anxiety about the future (Maree, 2021).

Career adaptability

According to Porfeli and Savickas (2012), career adaptability refers to a person’s ability to manage and navigate their career in changing circumstances such as technological advancement, economic shifts and successfully evolving job markets. Career adaptability involves being resourceful, proactive, and resilient in response to career-related opportunities and challenges (Bocciardi et al., 2017; Ramdhani et al., 2020). Career adaptability consists of four dimensions or coping strategies: being conscious of what is happening and making plans for future transitions (concern), owning the future and taking responsibility to make informed career decisions (control), having a curious mind in exploring the self and environment (curiosity) and having the ability to solve problems and resources needed to address challenges and difficulties (confidence) (Di Maggio et al., 2020; Fu et al., 2023; Savickas, 2013). When people possess these adaptability resources, they are likely to manage various transitions, such as school transition from high school to college/university, and from school to work or from being employed to self-employment or even losing a job (Porfeli & Savickas, 2012; Zhao et al., 2022). Thus, career decision-making involves mobilising career adaptability resources to navigate uncertain environments and pursue a desired career path. People with high levels of career adaptability are more likely to engage in proactive decision-making strategies and explore various options (Fu et al., 2023). Therefore, it is necessary to foster career adaptability resources among high school students to prepare them for current and future career transitions.

Theoretical framework

This study is guided by the Career Construction Theory (CCT) (Savickas, 2019). CCT provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how people construct their careers through actions and interpretations shaped by their own experiences and interactions with others, the environment and the social context (Jude & Maree, 2024; Maree, 2022; Ruiters & Maree, 2022). To this end, career decision-making and adaptability are explained within the context of CCT. CCT, therefore, views careers as a narrative constructed by people to make sense of their experiences and identities (Cardoso et al., 2022; Santilli et al., 2019). The theory suggests that people organise their career narratives around overarching life themes, which shape career decision-making processes and guide people’s actions towards meaningful career journeys (Santilli et al., 2019; Savickas, 2013). Central to CCT is CCC.

CCC

CCC intervention aims to help people choose and construct their careers and design their lives by integrating personal narratives and life themes with their aspirations (Savickas, 2013). It aims to enable people to build meaningful and satisfying career journeys by understanding their unique life stories, strengths and values (Cardoso et al., 2019; Maree, 2018a; Savickas, 2013). According to Savickas (2019) and Savickas et al. (2009), CCC aims to assist people in crafting a cohesive and purposeful career narrative that aligns with their self-concept, personal experiences and aspirations. Maree (2018b) adds that CCC promotes resilience or adaptability in people, an attitude that could enable them to withstand career uncertainty and successfully engage in career construction.

CCC intervention procedures

CCC intervention was implemented through eight structured sessions, each lasting approximately 80 min, conducted over an 8-week period. The intervention integrated psychoeducational and psychosocial components to address both cognitive and emotional aspects of career decision-making difficulties. The psychoeducational component focused on enhancing participants’ self-knowledge and decision-making skills through guided career awareness and exploration of occupational information. The psychosocial component emphasised emotional regulation, self-concept development, and meaning making through narrative exploration, value clarification, and reflective dialogue. The first two sessions introduced participants to the CCC framework and facilitated cognitive exploration of self and career options. The middle sessions focused on narrative activities that promoted self-concept clarity, emotional expression, adaptability, and resilience. The final sessions integrated insights from both components to support informed, confident career decisions and career adaptability.

A quasi experimental pre-test–post-test design was employed to assess participants’ career decision-making difficulties and adaptability before and after the intervention by using the Career Decision Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ) and Career Adapt-Abilities (CAAS). Changes in participants’ scores were used to determine improvement in decision-making clarity and career adaptability.

Purpose of the study and hypotheses

This study aimed to determine the effect of CCC on participants’ career decision-making and adaptability. The following hypotheses were addressed:

Hypothesis 1 (H1): Participants’ career decision-making difficulties will decrease after participating in a CCC intervention.

Hypothesis 2 (H2): Participants will exhibit increased career adaptability after participating in a CCC intervention.

Method

Demographic details of participants

Non-probability sampling, specifically convenience and purposive sampling, was employed to select participants for this study. The participants included Form Five (equivalent to Grade 11) male and female students drawn from two fairly homogeneous public high schools. These two schools share common characteristics in terms of teaching facilities, educational resources, infrastructures, and geographical location (urban). Convenience sampling was used to access students who were readily available and willing to participate, while purposive sampling was employed to select those who met specific criteria relevant to the study hypotheses. All students who consented to participate completed the Career Decision Difficulty Questionnaire (CDDQ) (Gati et al., 1996) and the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS) (Porfeli & Savickas, 2012). Based on the obtained scores, a cut-off point was established using the median to avoid the influence of extreme cases. Participants scoring above the median on the CDDQ (indicating higher career decision difficulties) and below the median on the CAAS (indicating lower career adaptability) were selected for the intervention phase.

From these results (see Table 1), one school (35 participants) was assigned as the intervention group, while the other (31 participants) served as the comparison group. According to Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2007), purposive sampling allows the researcher to intentionally select participants who possess characteristics or experiences that are most informative for the study’s purpose.

Overall, the total sample comprised 66 participants (27 males and 39 females. The male participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 21 (M = 18.85, SD = 0.86), while female participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 23 years (M = 18.67, SD = 1.08).

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics.

Groups	Gender	N	Minimum age	Maximum age	Mean age	Age Std. deviation
Comparison group	Male	16	18	21	19.06	0.85
Comparison group	Female	15	18	20	18.33	0.72
Intervention group	Male	11	18	20	18.55	0.82
Intervention group	Female	24	18	23	18.87	1.23

Description of the measures and psychometric properties

The Career Decision Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ) and CAAS were administered before and after the intervention to address the research hypotheses. These two questionnaires are widely used to measure career decision-making difficulties and adaptability.

The Career Decision Difficulties Questionnaire

This study employed the revised CDDQ developed by Gati and Saka (2001), which consists of 34 items. The CDDQ classifies decision-making difficulties into three major categories. Lack of readiness (10 items, with three subscales) assesses difficulties that occur prior to engaging in the decision-making process. This includes lack of motivation (unwillingness to make a decision at present, three items), indecisiveness (general difficulty making decisions, three items), and dysfunctional beliefs (distorted perceptions, unrealistic expectations, or irrational thoughts about decision-making, four items). Lack of information (12 items, with four subscales) measures difficulties related to insufficient information needed to make an informed career choice. This covers lack of information about the decision-making process (insufficient knowledge of steps involved, three items), lack of information about the self (limited awareness of preferences, abilities, or attributes, four items), lack of information about occupations (inadequate knowledge of available career options and their characteristics, three items), and lack of information about ways of obtaining information (unawareness of resources or methods to seek further guidance, two items). Inconsistent information (10 items, with three subscales) assesses difficulties resulting from contradictory or conflicting information, and encompasses unreliable information (contradictory personal or occupational information, three items), internal conflicts (difficulty reconciling incompatible factors considered important, five items), and external conflicts (discrepancies between personal preferences and the views of significant others, or between different significant others, two items). The questionnaire also includes two validity items to control the credibility of the respondents, and asks participants to indicate their gender, age, and years of education. Participants were requested to rate the degree to which the statement described them on a 9-point scale (1 = does not describe me to 9 = describe me well) (sample item: “It is usually difficult for me to make decisions”). A higher scale score indicates more difficulty with that area of decision-making. Previous studies have reported good validity and reliability for the CDDQ scale (Albion & Fogarty, 2002; Azhenov et al., 2023; Babarović & Šverko, 2016; Gati & Saka, 2001; Lancaster et al., 1999; Mau, 2004). For example, Gati and Saka (2001) reported internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients .62 (lack of readiness), .88 (lack of information), .87 (inconsistent information), and .91 (for the total CDDQ scale). However, some previous studies also have reported lower reliability for the CDDQ Lack of readiness subscale: .29 (Bacanli, 2016), .45 (Creed & Yin, 2006), .47 (Karacan-Ozdemir, 2019), and .52 (Tagay, 2015), indicating lower internal consistency of the CDDQ scale.

CAAS

The CAAS (Porfeli & Savickas, 2012) was designed to assess career adaptability based on four dimensions: concern (the extent to which people plan and prepare for their future), control (individual’s ability to take responsibility for shaping their career journey), curiosity (exploring possible selves and occupational alternatives), and confidence (ability to solve problems and overcome obstacles related to career tasks and transitions). The CAAS consists of 24 items grouped into four dimensions: concern (Items 1–6), control (Items 7–12), curiosity (Items 13–18) and confidence (Items 19–24). The responses are based on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = not strong to 5 = strongest. Porfeli and Savickas (2012) reported on the application of a four-dimensional structure in the CAAS-International from across 13 countries, which yielded internal consistency reliability of .83 (concern), .74 (control), .79 (curiosity), .85 (confidence) for the subscales, and .92 for all items.

The usefulness of the CAAS in the African context, particularly in South Africa, emerged as the research outcome conducted by Maree (2012) with Grades 9 and 11 learners in the North-West Province in South Africa. The results confirmed that the CAAS-South Africa’s psychometric characteristics and factor structure were similar to the CAAS-International. The fact that the CAAS-South Africa has demonstrated good psychometric properties justifies its use in the present study. Cronbach’s alpha scores were calculated to determine the internal consistency reliability of participants’ responses in the current study. The descriptive statistics of the CDDQ and the CAAS were also calculated.

Ethical issues

Permission to conduct the research was approved by the Ethics Research Committee, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, with ethical clearance number EDU060/20. In Tanzania, permission was obtained from the Regional Administrative Secretary, the District Administrative Secretary, the District Executive Director, and the District Education Officer. Thereafter, written informed consent and assent were obtained from the schools, the students, and their parents respectively to analyse and report the research anonymously.

Results

According to Nunnally and Bernstein (1994), acceptable Cronbach’s alpha internal reliability scores should be at least .70 for research purposes with lower stakes. In line with previous studies, Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient is reported. For the sake of transparency, McDonald’s omega was also calculated, given the small sample size and shorter questionnaire length (Orcan, 2023). The total sample’s pre-intervention CDDQ and CAAS internal consistencies are reported in Table 2.

Table 2.

CDDQ and CAAS (intervention and comparison groups) internal consistency.

	Mean	SD	Cronbach’s α	McDonald’s ω
CDDQ
Readiness	6.15	1.01	.221	.333
Lack of Motivation	3.99	2.18	.386	.445
General Indecisiveness	6.96	2.07	.538	.572
Dysfunctional Beliefs	7.15	1.37	.186	.391
Lack of Information	6.20	2.28	.907	.910
Career Decision-Making	6.53	2.68	.773	.780
Self	5.80	2.64	.796	.800
Occupations	6.67	2.49	.770	.787
Additional Information	5.84	2.80	.518	.521
Inconsistent Information	5.00	1.88	.776	.783
Unreliable information	6.08	2.58	.698	.710
Internal Conflicts	4.92	1.98	.549	.578
External Conflicts	3.80	2.90	.730	.732
Total CDDQ	5.79	1.47	.884	.887
Total CDDQ without readiness scale	5.63	1.97	.916	.920
CAAS
Concern	4.00	0.670	.691	.696
Control	3.97	0.729	.780	.785
Curiosity	3.71	0.756	.791	.797
Confidence	4.13	0.628	.755	.768
Total CAAS	3.95	0.547	.887	.891

While all the scales and subscale internal consistency coefficients have been reported in Table 2, it is noted that with the majority of subscales consisting of 3–5 items, it makes more sense to focus on the scales (bolded in table). For the CDDQ, the internal consistency coefficients were acceptable for the lack of information (.91) and inconsistent information (.78) scales, as well as the Total CDDQ (.88), but not the readiness (.22-.33) scale. Given none of the subscales in the readiness scale appeared to display internal consistency either, it is suggested that this scale be revised, or further studies be conducted, before making practical decisions with scores from this scale. The scale has therefore been removed from further analysis for this study, consistent with Creed and Yin’s (2006) views. These authors recommended the removal of the lack of readiness category from the CDDQ structure for the same reason. Therefore, the results presented in this article include the lack of information and inconsistent information scales. The recalculated internal consistency for the Total CDDQ (without the readiness items) improved to .92. Overall, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients indicate acceptable internal consistency reliability of the CAAS and its’ scales, with Concern being close enough to the .7 threshold.

Pre-test scores data analysis

To examine whether there were significant differences between the two groups on the pre-intervention measures, independent-samples t-tests were conducted. Specifically, Welch’s t-test was used for all comparisons, as it provides a robust estimate of group differences when the assumption of equal variances is not met. This approach was preferred over the standard Student’s t-test because Levene’s test for equality of variances was significant for several variables, indicating unequal variances. Across the CDDQ subscales, most differences between groups at pre-test were not statistically significant (p > .05), suggesting general baseline equivalence. However, two subscales showed significant group differences, namely External Conflict, t(55.4) = −2.68, p = .010, d = −0.67, which indicates a moderate-to-large effect size, and Inconsistent Information, t(49.8) = −2.18, p = .034, d = −0.55, indicating a moderate effect size. These findings suggest that, prior to the intervention, participants differed modestly in how much external conflict and inconsistent information influenced their career decision-making, while all other domains were comparable.

For the CAAS, no significant group differences were found across any of the four subscales or for the total CAAS score (all p > .05). Effect sizes were negligible (|d| < 0.08), indicating that the two groups were statistically equivalent in terms of career adaptability before the intervention.

Results of post-intervention scores across the intervention and comparison groups

To assess the effectiveness of the intervention within each group, paired-samples analyses were conducted to compare pre- and post-intervention scores on the CDDQ subscales and total score. Because the same participants completed the measures at both time points, the data were dependent, requiring a paired-samples approach, which is why the Wilcoxon W test was used to show changes within each of these groups. Given that the Shapiro-Wilk distributions suggested deviations from normality, the non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test (Wilcoxon W) was conducted as a more robust alternative to the Student’s t-test. Wilcoxon W compares the median of paired differences and does not assume normally distributed differences, making it suitable for smaller sample sizes or skewed data.

Effect sizes were reported as rank-biserial correlations for Wilcoxon tests, instead of Cohen’s d which is usually reported for t-tests, to quantify the magnitude of change.

Table 3 demonstrates that the intervention group shows large, consistent, and statistically significant improvements post-intervention compared to their pre-intervention scores across almost all CDDQ subscales and the total score (r mostly ⩾ .70). Participants reported large reductions in career decision-making difficulties following the programme, most notably in Lack of Information, Career Decision-Making, Self, Occupations, Additional Information, Internal Conflict and Total CDDQ (median change scores ranging from 1.23 to 4.00; rank-biserial r ⩾ .70, p < .001). By contrast, the comparison group showed no significant pre–post changes on these scales, and in several subscales (e.g., Career Decision-Making, Inconsistent Information, External Conflict), non-significant negative trends were observed. These findings suggest that the intervention produced substantial, practical improvements in decision-making readiness and information use that were not attributable to natural change over time, as evidenced by the comparison group.

Table 3.

CDDQ pre-/post-group Wilcoxon W comparison.

	Group	Statistic	p	Mean difference	SE difference	Effect Size
Lack of Information	Intervention	582	<.001	3.03	0.486	0.8476
	Comparison	184.0	.674	−0.177	0.394	−0.0936
Career Decision-Making	Intervention	483	<.001	4.00	0.638	0.8277
Career Decision-Making	Comparison	95.0	.119	−1.167	0.542	−0.3667
Self	Intervention	494	<.001	3.20	0.507	0.8712
Self	Comparison	170.0	.899	−0.125	0.413	−0.0313
Occupations	Intervention	415	<.001	3.33	0.583	0.7828
Occupations	Comparison	133.5	.903	−0.167	0.519	−0.0326
Additional Information	Intervention	363	<.001	3.58	0.605	0.7857
Additional Information	Comparison	142.5	.903	4.52e−5	0.517	0.0326
Inconsistent Information	Intervention	537	<.001	1.23	0.304	0.7032
Inconsistent Information	Comparison	118.5	.093	−0.724	0.391	−0.3730
Unreliable Information	Intervention	378	.084	1.33	0.602	0.3458
Unreliable Information	Comparison	122.5	.287	−0.500	0.482	−0.2462
Internal conflict	Intervention	560	<.001	1.70	0.357	0.7762
Internal conflict	Comparison	135.0	.309	−0.500	0.381	−0.2308
External conflict	Intervention	184	.018	1.50	0.373	0.5931
External conflict	Comparison	81.0	.143	−1.500	0.620	−0.3597
TotWal CDDQ	Intervention	605	<.001	1.91	0.284	0.9206
TotWal CDDQ	Comparison	180.0	.285	−0.253	0.297	−0.2258

To confirm that the intervention group’s scores changed significantly more than the comparison group, the changes in pre- and post-scores between the two groups were compared using Welch’s test, which is reported in Table 4. It is noted that a significantly larger difference in mean changes is seen in the intervention group, confirming that the intervention group showed significantly greater positive change than the comparison group, consistent with the expected intervention effect.

Table 4.

CDDQ pre-/post-change Welch’s test.

	Group	Mean Change	Statistic	df	p	Effect Size
Career Decision-Making	Intervention	3.590
Career Decision-Making	Comparison	0.936	5.41	63.4	<.001	1.324
Self	Intervention	2.914
Self	Comparison	0.081	4.58	62.8	<.001	1.120
Occupations	Intervention	2.895
Occupations	Comparison	0.215	3.99	63.8	<.001	0.978
Additional Information	Intervention	2.714
Additional Information	Comparison	0.161	3.61	63.4	<.001	0.885
Lack of Information	Intervention	3.029
Lack of Information	Comparison	0.348	5.40	62.7	<.001	1.320
Unreliable information	Intervention	1.105
Unreliable information	Comparison	0.645	2.27	62.5	0.027	0.555
Internal conflict	Intervention	1.794
Internal conflict	Comparison	0.413	4.23	63.0	<.001	1.042
External conflict	Intervention	0.900
External conflict	Comparison	1.032	2.67	49.9	0.010	0.667
Inconsistent Information	Intervention	1.266
Inconsistent Information	Comparison	0.697	3.96	58.4	<.001	0.983
Total CDDQ	Intervention	1.977
Total CDDQ	Comparison	0.394	5.77	63.3	<.001	1.422

Based on the Wilcoxon W results in Table 5, the intervention only had a significant influence on learners’ curiosity, which showed a significant increase. No other CAAS scores were statistically significantly altered by the intervention. There was, however, a significant difference on confidence in the comparison group, despite them not receiving the intervention. No other CAAS scores were statistically significantly altered during the period between the pre- and post-measures.

Table 5.

CAAS pre-/post-group Wilcoxon W comparison.

	Group	Statistic	p	Mean difference	SE difference	Effect Size
Concern	Intervention	165	.106	−0.333	0.1502	−0.335
Concern	Comparison	269	.057	0.250	0.1114	0.421
Control	Intervention	152	.159	−0.250	0.1382	−0.301
Control	Comparison	279	.190	0.250	0.1482	0.281
Curiosity	Intervention	119	.020	−0.417	0.1545	−0.488
Curiosity	Comparison	245	.813	0.993	0.1490	0.052
Confidence	Intervention	155	.176	−0.167	0.0963	−0.290
Confidence	Comparison	310	.048	0.333	0.1230	0.423
CAAS	Intervention	199	.057	−0.187	0.1082	−0.370
CAAS	Comparison	321	.072	0.167	0.0936	0.379

While Table 5 shows the within-group, pre- and post-differences between the intervention and comparison group, Table 6 compares the changes between the groups. The results in Table 6 suggests that the intervention influenced students’ career adaptability more than doing nothing (the comparison group) would have done. All mean change scores are positive for the intervention group and negative for the comparison group, with the difference in improvement between groups statistically significant across all subscales (p < .05), with the strongest effects shown for Total CAAS (d = 0.77) and Confidence (d = 0.69), both in the medium-to-large range. Practically, these effect sizes (0.5–0.8) represent meaningful real-world improvements, which, when comparing changes between groups, show that the intervention group’s relative gains are statistically and practically significant, even though the results presented in Table 5 reflected limited or even negative trends.

Table 6.

CAAS pre-/post-change Welch’s test.

	Group	Mean Change	Statistic	df	p	Effect Size
Concern	Intervention	0.252
Concern	Comparison	−0.323	2.67	60.8	0.010	0.652
Control	Intervention	0.190
Control	Comparison	−0.354	2.16	62.9	0.035	0.533
Curiosity	Intervention	0.400
Curiosity	Comparison	−0.177	2.01	64.0	0.048	0.495
Confidence	Intervention	0.148
Confidence	Comparison	−0.401	2.77	58.6	0.008	0.687
CAAS	Intervention	0.248
CAAS	Comparison	−0.314	3.15	63.6	0.002	0.772

Discussion

This study was conducted as a response to Savickas et al.’s (2009) argument that counsellors should take an interest in people’ futures much earlier than when they have to face the difficulties of transition and career-related challenges. Given the scarcity of empirical studies in Tanzania on the field of career counselling, this research investigated the effect of CCC intervention on high school students’ career decision-making difficulties and adaptability. Two hypotheses were addressed:

Participants’ career decision-making difficulties will decrease after participating in CCC intervention.

Participants will exhibit increased career adaptability after participating in CCC intervention.

The intervention was hypothesised to yield low post-intervention CDDQ Scores and higher post-intervention CAAS. These two research hypotheses are discussed in the following sections.

Participants’ career decision-making difficulties will decrease after participating in CCC intervention

The pre-test scores indicated higher career decision-making difficulties in the following dimensions: the lack of knowledge about the process, lack of information about occupation, unreliable information, lack of information about ways of obtaining additional information, and lack of information about the self. Moderate career decision-making difficulties were observed in the internal conflict and external conflict. The pre-test results showed that most participants were uncertain about what career to choose due to a lack of knowledge about the process, various occupations available and a limited understanding of themselves, their interests, abilities, strengths and weaknesses. The post-test score yielded positive changes as career decision-making difficulties of participants who participated in the CCC intervention decreased significantly. The results indicate that the CCC intervention had a considerable impact on the participants’ career decision-making difficulties. The statistically significant difference in the results suggests that the perceived difference in career decision-making difficulties between the pre post-intervention is unlikely to have happened by chance.

The intervention appeared to have genuinely influenced the participants’ career decision-making difficulties because, as participants were encouraged to tell their stories during the intervention, they could clarify their career choice challenges, thus improving their career decision-making. These results align with various research studies that have revealed the effectiveness and success of CCC intervention on enhancing career decision-making capacity (Cardoso et al., 2022; Cardoso et al., 2018; Maree, 2020a, 2021; Maree et al., 2022; Santilli et al., 2019). Most participants gained insight into themselves and career information, which enabled them to improve their decision-making ability. The results of this study concur with those of Azhenov et al. (2023), Maree and Di Fabio (2018), and Taber (2019). For instance, Azhenov et al. (2023) in their research on career decision-making readiness among university students in Kazakhstan and Russia found significant differences between pre-intervention and post-intervention in each of the career decision-making difficulties clusters. These researchers stress the importance of helping people gain insight into their decision-making challenges and empowering them to take decisive control of their careers. They maintain that CCC is effective and valuable for adolescents, particularly those struggling with career choice-related difficulties. The intervention enabled participants to reflect on their strengths, abilities, values, and subjective identities which enhanced their career choice. The results of the current study seem to support (Maree, 2018b, 2022) (in his research on the career decision-making of various adolescents) that the process of reflection facilitates finding the solution to career-related problems. These results highlight the substantial impact of career decision-making difficulties on students’ academic performance, future career trajectories, and overall well-being.

While the results of this study are consistent with many findings, they diverge from Jude et al. (2023), who found that CCC was less effective at improving career decision-making, as their intervention with disadvantaged high-school learners did not yield statistically significant changes in career decision-making difficulties. This divergence may be attributed to factors such as participants’ characteristics, cultural context, or the specific population studied.

Participants will exhibit increased career adaptability after participating in CCC intervention

The analysis examined the effect of the intervention on the four dimensions of career adaptability (concern, control, curiosity, confidence) and the overall CAAS scores, by comparing changes between the intervention and comparison groups. Across all domains, the intervention group demonstrated positive mean change scores, while the comparison group exhibited negative mean change scores. The effect size ranges from small to moderate, with the strongest impact observed in the Concern subscale (d = 0.379) as follows.

Concern

While participants in the intervention group yielded the mean change of 0.252, the comparison group recorded -0.323, yielding a mean difference of 0.50 (p = .008, d = 0.379), indicating a statistically significant difference and meaningful improvement in career concern. The medium effect size suggests that the intervention enhanced participants’ focus on their future and their ability to plan for and anticipate career-related challenges. Participants demonstrated increased concern about their future careers, which helped them gain greater awareness of their interests.

Control

As Fu et al. (2023) explained, control involves self-regulation through decision-making and taking responsibility for future ownership. The intervention group showed a mean change of 0.190 compared to -354 in the comparison group, with a mean difference of 0.50 (p = .042, d = 0.290. This finding indicates a small to moderate increase in career control, which reflects participants’ strengthened sense of control, responsibility, and initiative in making career decisions and pursuing their life goals.

Curiosity

The intervention group improved by 0.400, the comparison group decreased by −0.777, yielding a mean difference of 0.50 (p = .041, d = 0.291 indicating a modest impact due to small effect size. This finding suggests that the intervention slightly enhanced participants’ openness to exploring new career-related opportunities and seeking new information, a behaviour essential for adapting to a changing labour market.

Confidence

The intervention group’s mean change score of 0.148 contrasted with a mean difference of 0.50 (p = .010, d = 0.366, indicating a statistically significant improvement. This finding suggests that the intervention helped participants feel more confident in addressing career-related challenges and overcoming obstacles.

Summarised observations

Overall, the total CAAS score shows that the intervention had a meaningful positive effect on participants’ career adaptability. Career adaptability plays a crucial role in enabling students to navigate career-related challenges. The findings of this study align with many previous studies on the effectiveness of CCC in enhancing career adaptability of different groups of high school learners (Maree, 2019b, 2021; Maree et al., 2022; Wang & Liu, 2023). These studies support the findings of the current study that CCC fosters learners’ career adaptability by encouraging self-exploration and future-oriented thinking and enables students to become more adaptable in their career development.

While CCC in this study enhanced positive change in participants’ career adaptability, discrepancies were observed in the findings of (for instance) Cardoso et al. (2018), Jude and Maree (2024); Maree et al. (2018), Ruiters and Maree (2022), whose CCC intervention were less effective with grades 9, 10, 11 and 12 groups of participant in improving their career adaptability. Some researchers believe that career adaptability may not change significantly over short-term interventions and instead requires continuous developmental experiences (Anas & Hamzah, 2022; Lent & Brown, 2020). In their research on predicting career adaptability of fresh graduates through personal factors, they found that career adaptability was more strongly influenced by personal traits and environmental stability than by career intervention alone. They argue that while career counselling may provide short-term benefits, long-term career adaptability is shaped by continuous experience in the educational and work environment. This view contrasts with the significant changes observed in the present study, suggesting that CCC may provide more immediate and impactful results than previously assumed.

Concluding observations

Prior to the intervention, many participants exhibited uncertainty, low confidence, and limited self-awareness concerning their career trajectories. However, through the intervention they developed a clearer sense of identity, values, interests, and future aspirations. The intervention facilitated the construction of personal narratives which enabled participants to make more informed career choices rooted in self-understanding. These findings are consistent with earlier researches affirming the effectiveness of CCC in enhancing career adaptability resources, self-concept clarity, and decision-making capacity. The participants’ transformation throughout the intervention highlights the counselling approach’s potential not only to support immediate career choices but also to foster long-term developmental resources such as resilience, planning, and adaptability in the face of future vocational challenges.

Limitations of the study

The relatively small sample size has constrained the extent to which the results can be generalised to a broader population of Form Five students. The total number of participants was 66, divided into an intervention (n = 35) and comparison group (n = 31). This slight imbalance in group sizes may have introduced some degree of bias or variability in the outcome, potentially affecting the internal consistency and statistical power of the study. A larger and more demographically diverse sample would likely have improved external validity and representativeness of the results, allowing for conclusions applicable across different contexts. In addition, all data for Career Decision-making Difficulty Questionnaire (CDDQ) and the CAAS were gathered through self-report questionnaires. While convenient and efficient, this approach is inherently susceptible to social desirability bias, whereby participants might have given responses they perceive as more acceptable or favourable rather than providing honest and accurate reflections of their true feelings, attitudes, or behaviours. Such bias might have compromised the authenticity of the data and by extension, the validity of the study’s results.

Implications for theory and practice, policy, and further research

The observed decrease in career decision-making difficulties and increase in career adaptability following the intervention holds important implications for the design and implementation of career guidance and counselling programmes in secondary schools. The results of this study suggest that incorporating CCC principles into school-based career education can effectively equip students with the adaptive resources they need to navigate the uncertainties and complexities of the modern labour market. To this end, school counsellors, career counselling professionals, and educators should be encouraged to integrate narrative-based, developmental approaches central to CCC within existing career development frameworks. These approaches not only foster adaptability but also empower students to become active agents in shaping their career journey.

Moreover, the reduction in career decision-making difficulties observed in the study indicates that CCC intervention can enhance students’ decision-making capacity and bolster their self-efficacy in managing career-related challenges and transitions. Therefore, policy-makers and relevant education and training institutions should invest in training and professional development opportunities that focus on equipping school counsellors with competencies in the career construction approach. Such efforts can enhance the quality and effectiveness of career services offered to students during a formative period of their development.

From a research perspective, further research is needed to understand the sustainability and long-term effects of CCC interventions. Longitudinal studies could explore whether the increase in career adaptability and decision-making capacity persist over time and influence students’ actual outcomes, such as post-secondary choices, persistent in chosen career, and job satisfaction. In addition, researchers should examine how contextual factors including socioeconomic background, cultural norms, school environment and family support shape students’ response to CCC intervention.

Future research should also employ more rigorous research designs, such as randomised controlled trials, to strengthen the causal inferences drawn from the findings. Comparing outcomes between intervention and control groups would help validate the efficacy CCC and provide a stronger empirical foundation for policy and practice recommendation.

Conclusion

The study showed that CCC can promote career adaptability, strengthen identity formation, and prepare young people situated in contexts analogous to those of the present study’s participants to respond confidently and flexibly to an increasingly uncertain and dynamic job market. While the broader literature reflects some variations in outcomes, the current study offers convincing evidence in favour of the relevance and efficacy of CCC, particularly in Global South (developing country contexts), and Tanzania in particular. The implemented CCC intervention substantially enhanced participants’ career decision-making capacity and adaptability.

CCC seems relevant in the Tanzanian (and other developing contexts), where many secondary school students navigate complex sociocultural, economic and systemic barriers to informed career planning. Therefore, this study offers empirical support for incorporating CCC principles into school-based career guidance and counselling programmes to address these challenges proactively. The intervention’s emphasis on storytelling, meaning-making and personal agency provides a culturally sensitive appropriate framework for supporting youth in their career journeys. Moreover, this research contributes to the growing body of literature advocating for early introduction of CCC interventions in non-western contexts.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Grace Makunja Magere

Jacobus Gideon Maree

Pakeezah Rajab

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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The effect of career construction counselling on high school students’ career decision-making difficulties and career adaptability

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Career decision-making difficulties

Career adaptability

Theoretical framework

CCC

CCC intervention procedures

Purpose of the study and hypotheses

Method

Demographic details of participants

Description of the measures and psychometric properties

The Career Decision Difficulties Questionnaire

CAAS

Ethical issues

Results

Pre-test scores data analysis

Results of post-intervention scores across the intervention and comparison groups

Discussion

Participants’ career decision-making difficulties will decrease after participating in CCC intervention

Participants will exhibit increased career adaptability after participating in CCC intervention

Concern

Control

Curiosity

Confidence

Summarised observations

Concluding observations

Limitations of the study

Implications for theory and practice, policy, and further research

Conclusion

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Funding

Declaration of conflicting interests

References