Through the lens of a global pandemic: the evolution of the multidimensional role of a school counsellor

Abstract

We explored the experiences of high school counsellors during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Western Cape, South Africa. Nine school-based mental health professionals were recruited from private high schools, using a combination of purposive, convenience, and volunteer sampling methods. Participants were interviewed online between April and August 2023. Interviews were recorded, transcribed thematically, and analysed with the assistance of ATLAS.ti, version 24 software. Data analysis and interpretation were guided by Biddle’s Role Theory and Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory, which underpinned the conceptual framework of this study. During reflexive thematic analysis, the following three main themes emerged: (1) the multifaceted role of school counsellors, (2) the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the roles and responsibilities of school counsellors, and (3) the challenges and opportunities arising from the pandemic. The study revealed that school-based mental health professionals did not experience major changes in their roles. Rather, the methods used to execute their roles were adapted to ensure service continuity during the COVID-19 pandemic. School-based mental health professionals’ multidimensional roles are an inevitable reality in most South African schools. Therefore, redefining the scope of practice of school-based mental health professionals and restructuring the tertiary training of counsellors to meet the contextual needs of schools will equip them to execute their roles more effectively.

Introduction

School counsellors’ roles are a diverse, systemic service to whole school communities (Heled & Davidovitch, 2022). However, school counselling services vary based on organisational and surrounding community needs (Heled & Davidovitch, 2022). School counsellors’ functions, often interdisciplinary in nature, can lead to their roles becoming vague and ill-defined (Alves & Gazzola, 2011; DeKruyf et al., 2013). Lack of role clarity in the school counselling profession globally is addressed by Suh et al. (2014), who suggested that clear roles promote improved counselling policies and procedures, continuous professional development, and adaptation of school counselling to the context of the prevailing culture. Martin et al. (2015) found that other factors including national needs, laws and educational policies, local culture, counselling as a profession, and school-based research and evaluation affect the development and implementation of counselling in schools. Over time, school counsellors’ roles in South Africa shifted from career and moral development to a comprehensive, developmental, and collaborative service in response to escalating psychosocial, political, and economic challenges facing learners, families, and communities (Daniels, 2013, p. 23).

Evidence suggests that the onset of symptoms of mental health conditions occurs during school-age years (6–18 years), indicating that school-based mental health services (SBMHSs) have the unique ability to reach more youth in need (Kern et al., 2017). Often, in low-income families, the only access to social and emotional support is provided by schools (Golberstein et al., 2020; Mushaandja et al., 2013).

Despite clear indications of declining mental health in South Africa, psychological services have remained a peripheral priority nationally, particularly regarding the psychological needs of children and adolescents (Bradshaw et al., 2021; Meyer et al., 2019). The COVID-19 pandemic illuminated the high prevalence of mental health conditions in South Africa (Craig et al., 2022; Kumar & Nayar, 2020). A notable difference between the COVID-19 pandemic and previous global pandemics was its occurrence in the era of social media, which was characterised by instantaneous information-sharing, with misinformation fuelling fear, anxiety, and stress as the pandemic progressed (Kumar & Nayar, 2020). Researchers suggest that the implications of the pandemic are likely more dire than reported due to the number of pre-existing socio-economic factors and mismanaged health care systems (Kumar & Nayar, 2020).

To reduce the spread of COVID-19 infections, the majority of mental health services moved online (Pillay & Barnes, 2020) via telephonic hotlines, online chats, or distribution of electronic psychoeducational material during lockdowns (South African Depression and Anxiety Group [SADAG], 2020). It is unknown how many psychology or school counselling training programmes offered training in telemental health services prior to the pandemic. Issues pertaining to ethics, data protection, and privacy of online counselling services were highlighted by the pandemic, as many of the online platforms were not designed to facilitate mental health services pre-COVID (Golberstein et al., 2020; Savitz-Romer et al., 2021; Stoll et al., 2020). South African school counsellors also raised the issues of privacy and anonymity regarding remote counselling due to many children living in overcrowded homes (Coetzee et al., 2022; Warria et al., 2023).

Therefore, this article explored the subjective experiences of school-based mental health professionals (SBMHPs) at private high schools in the Western Cape, South Africa, and documented the evolution of their roles during the COVID-19 pandemic that may assist the profession in future practice. We engaged two theoretical frameworks throughout the interpretation of the study, namely, Role Theory (Biddle, 1979, 1986) and the Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1994), which guided the construction of themes and subthemes. Role Theory provided insights into participants’ perception of their roles and how they thought others perceived their roles within their school organisations. Role Theory also provided a framework to describe the participants’ expectations of their roles and functions. In addition, this study used the five ecological systems (micro-, meso-, exo-, macro-, and chronosystem) of the Ecological Systems Theory to explain the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on school communities (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), creating a framework of understanding of how SBMHPs contextualised their support during this period.

Private high schools were considered to be a feasible focus of this study due to it being a small-scale, exploratory study of a relatively understudied research area. In addition, exploring the evolution of the role of a school counsellor in a private context during the time period of the COVID-19 pandemic was anticipated to be the foundation for larger-scale research to be conducted in public South African school contexts in the future.

Method

A qualitative study was conducted among SBMHPs working at private high schools in the Western Cape, South Africa. We explored the SBMHPs’ experiences and perceived preparedness to manage their roles during the COVID-19 pandemic. To participate in this study, participants were required to be SBMHPs working at their school organisations pre-COVID (before March 2020) and during the COVID-19 pandemic until the time of data collection (April–August 2023). In addition, participants were required to work at a private high school within the geographical location of the Western Cape and be interviewed in English, either in-person or online. Participants were recruited through a combination of purposive, convenience, and volunteer sampling. Participants from a supervision network database within the Western Cape were invited to participate in the study directly via email. We identified this population within an already established school counsellor supervision network. In addition, social media invitations were posted on Instagram and Facebook, where potential participants who met the abovementioned inclusion criteria were able to respond to the invitation via instant messenger.

Participants

Nine participants (one male and eight females) provided in-depth reports of their experiences as high school counsellors during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Western Cape, South Africa. Seven of the participants were employed at their school organisations full-time and two were employed part-time, with years practicing at their current school organisations ranging between 5 and 12 years. The professional registrations of the nine participants were one educator (pastoral support), one social worker, three clinical social workers, one clinical psychologist, two educational psychologists, and one registered counsellor. The majority of the participants studied at Stellenbosch University (n = 5), with the highest qualifications being master’s degrees in either Educational or Clinical Psychology (n = 3) and Clinical Social Work (n = 3). The years of experience between the various research participants’ registration categories ranged between 5 and 35 years.

Instrument

A semi-structured interview schedule was developed to collect primary data from participants regarding their experiences and perceived preparedness to perform their roles during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants were requested to reflect on their roles in their school organisations before the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak, the effects the pandemic had on the execution of their roles, and how they negotiated the gap between their tertiary training and job requirements as the pandemic progressed.

Procedure

The interviews were conducted online via Microsoft Teams in English and under confidential conditions. Participants (n = 9) were enrolled in the study until data saturation was reached. None of the participants received incentives or remuneration for taking part in the research study and voluntarily opted in to be interviewed online. The interviews were video and audio-recorded and transcribed, ranging from 17 to 46 min in duration.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance was obtained from Stellenbosch University’s Research Ethics Committee: Social, Behavioural and Educational Research (REC: SBER) (project ID: PSY-2023-27249) on March 27, 2023. Prospective participants were informed of the purpose of the research study and that they could decline to answer questions they were not comfortable with or withdraw from the study at any time. The identities of the participants and their school organisations were kept private, and their responses were confidential and only accessible to the research team. Participants’ names in this study are pseudonyms to protect their identity. No participants expressed any undue distress during or after the interview process. However, participants were provided with contact details for free counselling resources if necessary.

Data analysis

Reflexive thematic analysis (RTA) (Braun & Clarke, 2021) was used to analyse the findings of this study. Due to the largely unexplored nature of the focus area and research topic at the time of data collection, RTA allows for more flexibility and organic coding and theme development in the research process (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The six phases of RTA outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006, 2012, 2021) were followed: (1) Familiarising oneself with the data by reading and re-reading transcripts of the interviews and writing familiarisation notes. Hard copies of the raw transcribed interviews were read multiple times, highlighting potential codes and themes while listening to the recorded interviews to ensure accuracy of the transcribed data while taking notes. (2) Systematic data coding. The transcribed data were labelled according to the essence of participant responses to the interview questions. (3) Generating initial themes from coded and collated data. Participant responses were colour-coded, and key words were manually highlighted on the printed transcriptions that related to the research question, aims, and purpose of the study. Similarities, connections, and patterns were analysed in the data set while remaining aware of potential bias during theme construction. (4) Developing and reviewing themes. Responses were compared to the manual analysis by using the AI analysis function of the ATLAS.ti software version 24 (ATLAS.ti, 2024) to derive common themes from the transcribed data. (5) Refining, defining, and naming themes. Themes were restated, ensuring that their labels were appropriate with short definition themes, and (6) Producing the research report.

RTA enabled an inductive analysis of data in the current study, where theoretical points of departure were able to be extrapolated from (Braun & Clarke, 2021). Integration of Role Theory and the Ecological Systems Theory provided an understanding of the SBMHP’s definitions of their roles during the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, these two theories aided the conceptual framework of how SBMHPs’ roles developed during the pandemic within their specific school contexts. Data were finally interpreted through the social context of South Africa and how pre-existing or pandemic-induced economic and social challenges (Coetzee & Kagee, 2020) may have influenced SBMHPs’ support of their learners and school communities during the pandemic.

Results

The three main themes of the study were: (1) the multifaceted role of school counsellors, (2) the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the roles and responsibilities of school counsellors, and (3) the challenges and opportunities arising from the pandemic.

The first theme established a baseline of how the SBMHPs understood their own roles in their school organisations. In addition, it indicated the participants’ understanding of their school management’s perception of their roles before the pandemic. This theme was expanded to include the subthemes of perceptions of their roles and responsibilities as a school counsellor before the pandemic.

The multifaceted role of school counsellors

Perception of the role as a school counsellor before COVID-19

Participants stated that their school management was generally supportive of their roles within their school organisations. However, they reported a possible misalignment of expectations and understanding regarding their function within their school. Pamela, a part-time clinical social worker, stated:

Even though [school management] are supportive and they want us [school counsellors] to be here, they really struggle with our role and don’t quite understand what we do . . .

Some participants stated that it took time for teachers and school management to recognise and appreciate their roles, which required the reinforcement of boundaries, particularly regarding their scope of counselling services.

Roles and responsibilities as a school counsellor pre-COVID

Participants reported on the various tasks they performed before the pandemic, such as individual and group counselling, supporting teaching staff, and providing preventive, psychoeducational services. The majority of the participants recalled that their capacity to perform preventive services such as psychoeducational talks and workshops on prevalent issues within their school organisations was more achievable before the pandemic. Katie, a full-time registered counsellor, stated:

. . . I think I had more capacity for preventative work, there were a lot more psychoeducational talks that were done before any kind of crisis.

Participants recalled being involved in multiple activities in their school communities in addition to their primary role of providing emotional support to learners pre-COVID. Participants recounted that their days were more structured and predictable before the COVID-19 pandemic, despite the occasional crisis. Samantha, a full-time social worker, explained:

. . . There was a lot more structure and predictability, I would have kids that I would check in with regularly and walk-ins but it was way less compared to now [during COVID]. . . I did a lot of teaching before [COVID], involved with admissions and interviewing processes, overseeing interns and academic support/ classroom management with teachers.

Some participants mentioned that their roles before COVID were fragmented and undefined. Additional working hours were often required to meet the demands of their primary function of providing psychosocial support to learners. Tameron, a full-time, clinical social worker, described her multidimensional involvement in her school organisation before COVID:

[I] was doing a lot of primary, short-term individual work. [My] role is pretty multifaceted . . . drawing up new policies, [a] high school counsellor, checking in the maintenance staff and involved in transformation and diversity/ inclusion.

The second theme described the perceived barriers to effective provision of psychosocial services during the pandemic. Subthemes that emerged from this theme highlighted the nature of interventions school counsellors were providing during this time.

School counsellors’ adaptation of their roles during the COVID-19 pandemic

Participants recounted being in shock during the first hard lockdown (March 2020), followed by periods of prolonged uncertainty as the phased-in approach to in-person schooling began (June 2020). Participants reported that learners were frequently using online counselling services during the hard lockdown period, and the phased-in schooling process highlighted the need for a sense of routine and predictability among the learners.

Crisis management and increased use of counselling services

All nine participants described the phased school re-openings as a period of ‘crisis management’ with notable increases in the volume and severity of their caseload compared to before the COVID-19 pandemic as, Tameron illustrated:

. . . I see myself almost like a firefighter, just when you think you are getting somewhere, another fire emerges; it was continuous crisis management.

Some participants described the intensity of mental health issues more than 3 years after the COVID-19 outbreak, as recounted by Katie:

Learners’ issues multiplied during COVID, [there is a] psychological crisis. [It] feels like I am working at a clinic at times.

Increased parental and learning support

Participants reported increased interaction with parent(s) and families during the pandemic to support their learners. As learners could not physically be at school, it was difficult for school counsellors to accurately assess their wellbeing.

Of the nine participants, one was uniquely involved in the admissions processes of learners who had barriers to learning. During the phased re-opening of schools, Samantha described her experience:

. . . I was involved with admissions, specifically from a psychological point of view . . . I also took on the entire accommodations process for exams. The need to highlight barriers to learning increased so much post-COVID.

Role consistency

Although all participants noticed changes in the number of learners accessing SBMHS, they felt that their roles did not change significantly as a result of the pandemic. A notable change was the addition of technology to their service delivery methods, post-COVID, as stated by Paul, a full-time clinical psychologist:

Now, [since the onset of COVID-19], [my role is] very similar. [Counselling] still [takes place predominantly] in person but with the addition of technology. All systems, pastoral, tutor, etc., all remained the same after COVID.

Other participants reported that they remained the central point of emotional support, despite the progression of the COVID-19. Samantha reported how she remained the central point of emotional support in her school organisation, despite the changes she experienced in her role as the pandemic progressed:

. . . I am still 100% the central point for emotional support at our school, so that still remains the same.

The third theme highlighted the challenges that arose from the pandemic, which are elaborated in the subtheme regarding the increase in the demand for counselling services that was noticed by the school counsellors. The second subtheme focused on how the SBMHPs adapted to the context of the pandemic and used innovative methods to incorporate their psychological skills within non-counselling tasks.

The challenges and opportunities arising from the pandemic

Participants recounted providing support to their school communities while navigating the use of new technologies, ever-changing national regulations, lack of regulatory body guidance, and general uncertainty during the initial stages of the pandemic and phased re-opening of schools. None of the participants had prior experience with or training in online counselling before the pandemic. However, they all embraced the challenges and quickly learned how to provide counselling services in an online format, as described by Paul:

It was difficult to engage with them [learners] online because they often don’t want to meet face-to-face on camera. I remember it being a bit of a challenge. I was also a little bit unfamiliar with this format. I’d never done online counselling before.

Participants reported that the shift to online platforms to deliver SBMHS was easier with those who they had existing counselling relationships as opposed to learners who started counselling online.

Increased demand for counselling services

The nine participants described how they adapted their service delivery when the demand for counselling support increased during the in-person school return. Participants reported providing emotional containment to learners presenting with more severe mental health symptoms for longer time periods than they usually would pre-COVID, due to difficulties experienced with finding available referrals. Theresa, a full-time clinical social worker, explained:

. . . We [were] holding [providing mental health support to] our pupils longer in more serious situations because of the challenge of finding a therapist. We are also dealing with a specific developmental age where not everybody is interested in or qualified to work with teenagers . . . We feel it’s gotten worse if we just look at the severity.

Evolving roles and responsibilities of school counsellors post-COVID

Participants’ adaptation to their specific school contexts during the pandemic and phased-in school return varied. Each participant assessed the needs within their school organisations and ensured that they were best positioned to support their learners and the broader school community, as Samantha explained:

I made a conscious effort to speak the narrative around emotional safety in staff meetings and used online feedback forms with the learners, adding the emotional safety aspect.

Participants stated that their practical experience within their roles was the greatest contributor to their professional development, with many making use of established structures within their school organisations or strategically using non-counselling-related tasks as the segue to incorporate mental health support. Likewise, the innovative and intuitive responses of participants were evident throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, where tasks such as morning temperature checks were used to connect with learners and ensure visibility of support. Life Orientation lessons were used as a method of reinforcing the focus on emotional safety and wellbeing.

Discussion

Although the body of knowledge regarding the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on society on a global scale is constantly evolving, documentation of the subjective experiences of SBMHPs during the COVID-19 pandemic has been sparse, specifically in South Africa.

To describe the findings of this study, we drew on Biddle’s (1979, 1986) Role Theory, specifically focusing on three of the five key concepts of context, function, and social embeddedness, and how participants’ roles were adapted during the COVID-19 pandemic. Combining previous literature with the results from this study, it was found that school counsellors often support learners who present with a multitude of challenges, requiring them to assume a number of different functions within a school organisation (Daniels, 2013; Harris, 2014; Heled & Davidovitch, 2022). Participants from this study stated that in addition to their primary function of counselling, they also taught Life Orientation lessons, assisted in admissions processes, provided learning support services, and performed senior leadership duties. Harris (2014) and DeKruyf et al. (2013) confirm the wide-ranging work of school counsellors which often combine components of a mental health professional, teacher, and school leader.

The majority of participants described performing dual roles in their day-to-day responsibilities. While this is usually discouraged by regulatory bodies’ ethical regulations, it is difficult to avoid an overlap between roles and functions within school environments. Findings from this study recognised that SBMHP’s dual roles allowed them to be positioned more centrally within their school and teaching gave them access to the learners from an advantageous perspective, which often assisted them in building rapport. Similarly, one of the key concepts of Role Theory states that the embeddedness of roles in social systems allows for more accurate observation of the requirements to perform that role at a given time (Biddle, 1979).

Participants viewed their roles as primarily supporting learners in a structured and/or ad hoc fashion, occasionally managing crisis situations, supporting teaching staff, and using preventive measures such as workshops to address common issues. In addition to Role Theory, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model was also incorporated into the conceptual framework of this study, expanding on the complexities of context and how various influences affect an individual or group at a specific time (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1994). School counsellors do not operate in isolation but interact with many different individuals within their school communities, all of which impact their experience and the performance of their roles (Zurakat, 2015). Heled and Davidovitch (2022) confirm that school counsellors counsel their learners or interact with the teaching staff, from a point of view of the entire system. McMahon et al. (2014) highlight the interconnectedness and interdependent relationship that exists between systems that form the broader ecosystem of a school, suggesting that changes to the larger ecosystem will affect the other subsystems and vice versa.

An important finding from this study was that most of the SBMHPs perceived their roles as the consistent central point for emotional support during the pandemic. Rather, the methods to suit the unusual circumstances were adapted to ensure fulfilment of this vital service to their schools. Similarly, in a study conducted in Germany, school psychologists described providing the same services to their school communities but reported a change in the mode of service delivery during the pandemic (May et al., 2023). A study conducted in Israel held the same sentiment, that changes to the usual routines of school counsellors did not mean a change to the definition and goal of their roles as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic (Heled & Davidovitch, 2022).

Pre-COVID, school counsellors’ roles were multifaceted in nature and could have been a contributory factor that assisted their quick adaptation of support as the pandemic progressed. Usually viewed in a negative light, the dual roles that school counsellors are often required to perform could be beneficial in keeping abreast of the forever-changing educational landscape. Other studies have argued that dual roles decrease the effectiveness of service delivery of school counsellors’ primary role of counsellor (Muhammed & Imam, 2020). However, streamlining the secondary roles counsellors are expected to perform could better compliment their primary role of social and emotional support within the South African school context. Managing the expectations of counsellors working in school contexts may better equip them to perform multidisciplinary functions that incorporate their counselling skills in new, innovative ways. Findings from this study highlighted the resilience and adaptability of the SBMHPs who navigated the changes to their methods of service delivery during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, using the data gathered during the pandemic could be an opportunity to restructure tertiary training programmes that pertain specifically to preparing mental health and/or educational professionals working in the South African school context.

Limitations

The study’s small sample size, although various sampling methods were utilised in an attempt to mitigate this, was not large enough to be representative of all SBMHPs’ experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa. However, semi-structured interviews were able to collect rich, firsthand data to document the experiences of SBMHPs during the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Recommendations

This study was conducted in private high schools located in relatively affluent areas. Thus, data may have been skewed in terms of the challenges experienced by all SBMHPs before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Further research, either in public schools in similar geographical locations or in public schools in rural areas, could document the similarities and/or differences in experiences by SBMHPs in these contexts during periods of crisis.

Implications for further research

The majority of the participants in the study reported performing a variety of tasks within their roles as school counsellors. Further research could be conducted with relevant stakeholders at regulatory bodies and tertiary institutions to provide additional training that incorporates equipping counsellors for specific contexts, that is, working as a school versus working in the corporate sector. In addition, regulatory bodies in consultation with the Department of Education may uncover potential challenges to the provision of SBMHS and improve the training requirements of counsellors to meet the real-time needs that are present in school organisations.

Conclusion

The participants observed an increase in the intensity of mental health conditions in their school communities, leading to prolonged periods of crisis management from the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Although the focus of the high school counsellors’ primary roles did not change, the methods of providing these services evolved to ensure service delivery continuity as the pandemic progressed. The need for a systemic approach to SBMHS has been highlighted by the COVID-19 pandemic due to the multi-layered repercussions on individuals, families, and various institutions both locally and around the globe.

Future pandemics are inevitable, and it is imperative that the lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic are documented to ensure professionals are better trained and equipped to implement plans to support the next generation of counsellors in potential periods of crisis in the South African schooling system.