Stress occurs when appraisal of the demands of a situation exceed the available resources under conditions where failure to meet the demand is perceived as having negative consequences. Stress is neither considered to be merely an event or response but rather a complex interaction of interrelated constructs and processes reflecting the relationship between intrapersonal and stituational variables. Although, the identification of general categories of stress is possible; it is important to acknowledge the significance of individual differences, especially with respect to cognitive evaluation procedures. The concurrent responses considered in this paper are self-confidence and state anxiety; both of which are related to potential pre-competitive performance stress. Antecedents and consequences are examined with respect to elite competitive springboard divers. Recommendations for future research propose continuous assessment strategies.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
BrunoJ.E. (1986). Scoring Bias in Springboard and Platform Diving: A Bayesian Approach to Revision of DD Tables. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 57, 16–22
2.
BurtonD. (1988). Do anxious swimmers swim slower? Re-examining the elusive anxiety-performance relationship. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10, 45–61
3.
CooleyE.J. (1987). Situational and Trait Determinants of Competitive State Anxiety. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 64, 767–773
4.
DavidsonR.J.SchwartzG.E. (1967). The Psychobiology of Relaxation and Related States: A Multiprocess Theory. In: Hammermeister, J. & Burton, D. (1995). Anxiety and the Ironman: Investigating the Antecedents and Consequences of Endurance Athletes' State Anxiety. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 29–40
5.
DeLongisA. (1988). The impact of Daily Stress on Health and Mood: Psychological and Social resources as mediators. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 486–495
6.
EklundR.C. (1996). Preparing to Compete: A Season-Long Investigation With Collegiate Wrestlers. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 111–131
7.
FisherC.A.ZwartE.F. (1982). Psychological Analysis of Athletes' Anxiety Responses. Journal of Sport Psychology, 4, 139–158
8.
FranksB.D. (1994). What is Stress?QUEST, 46, 1–7
9.
GillD.L. (1994). A Sport and Exercise Psychology Perspective on Stress. QUEST, 46, 20–27
10.
GillD.L.MartensR. (1977). The Role of Task Type and Success-Failure in Group Competition. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 8, 160–177
11.
GouldD.EklundR.C.JacksonS.A. (1992). 1988 U.S. Olympic Wrestling Excellence: I. Mental Preparation, Pre-competitive Cognition, and Affect. The Sport Psychologist, 6, 358–382
12.
GouldD.HornT.SpreemannJ. (1983). Sources of Stress in Junior Elite Wrestlers. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 159–171
13.
GouldD.JacksonS.A.FinchL.M. (1993a). Sources of Stress in National Champion Figure Skaters. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15, 134–159
14.
GouldD.JacksonS.A.FinchL.M. (1993b). Life at the Top-The Experience of United-States National Champion Figure Skaters. Sport Psychologist, 1, 354–374
15.
GouldD.PetliehkoffL.SimonsJ.VeveraM. (1987). Relationship Between Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Subscale Scores and Pistol Shooting Performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 9, 33–42
16.
GouldD.PetliehkoffL.WeinbergR.S. (1984). Antecedents of Temporal Changes In, And Relationships Between CSAI-2 Subcomponents. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, 289–304
17.
GouldD.WeinbergR. (1985). Sources of Worry in Successful and Less Successful Intercollegiate Wrestlers. Journal of Sport Behavior, 8, 115–127
18.
GouldD.WeissM.WeinbergR. (1981). Psychological Characteristics of Successful and Nonsuccessful Big Ten Wrestlers. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3, 69–81
19.
HammermeisterJ.BurtonD. (1995). Anxiety and the Ironman: Investigating the Antecedents and Consequences of Endurance Athletes' State Anxiety. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 29–40
20.
HighlenP.S.BennettB.B. (1983). Elite Divers and Wrestlers: A Comparison Between Open- and Closed-skill Athletes. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 390–409
21.
HighlenP.S.BennettB.B. (1979). Psychological characteristics of successful and unsuccessful elite wrestlers: An exploratory study. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1, 123–137
22.
HorowitzM.J. (1990). Stress, States, and Person Schemas. Psychological Inquiry: An International Journal of Peer Commentary and Review, 1, 25–26
23.
JonesG.HantonS.SwainA.B.J. (1994). Intensity and Interpretation of Anxiety Symptoms in Elite and Non-Elite Sports Performers. Personality and Individual Differences, 17, 657–663
24.
KarteroliotisC.GillD.L. (1987). Temporal Changes in Psychological and Physiological Components of State Anxiety. Journal of Sport Psychology, 9, 261–274
25.
KraneV.WilliamsJ.M. (1987). Performance and Somatic Anxiety, Cognitive Anxiety, and Confidence Changes Prior to CompetitionJournal of Sport Behavior, 10, 47–56
26.
KrohneH.W. (1990). Personality as a Mediator Between Objective Events and Their Subjective Representation. Psychological Inquiry: An International Journal of Peer Commentary and Review, 1, 26–29
LazarusR.S.FolkmanS. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping.New York: Springer
29.
LiebertR.M.MorrisL.W. (1967). Cognitive and Emotional Components of Test Anxiety: A Distinction and Some Initial Data. Psychological Reports, 20, 975–978
30.
LoxC.L. (1992). Perceived Threat as a Cognitive Component of State Anxiety and Confidence. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75, 1092–1094
31.
MagillR.A. (1993). Motor Learning: Concepts and Applications, Fourth Edition.Oxford, England: Brown and Benchmark
32.
MahoneyM.J.AvenerM. (1977). Psychology of the Elite Athlete: An Exploratory Study. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1, 135–141
33.
MartensR. (1977). Sport Competition Anxiety Test.Champaign IL: Human Kinetics
34.
MartensR.BurtonD.VealeyR.SmithD.BumpL. (1983). The Development of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2). Unpublished Manuscript. In: Gould, D., Petliehkoff, L. & Weinberg, R.S. (1984). Antecedents of Temporal Changes In, And Relationships Between CSAI-2 Subcomponents. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, 289–304
35.
MartensR.VealeyR.S.BurtonD. (1990). Competitive Anxiety in Sport.Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
36.
MathesonH.MathesS. (1991). Influence of Performance Setting, Experience and Difficulty of Routine on Pre-competition Anxiety and Self-confidence of High School Female Gymnasts. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 72, 1099–1105
37.
MeyersA.W.CookeC. J.CullenJ.LilesL. (1979). Psychological Aspects of Athletic Competitors: A Replication Across Sports. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 3, 361–366
38.
MorrisL.W.DavisD.HutchingsC. (1981). Cognitive and Emotional Components of Anxiety: Literature Review and Revised Worry-emotionality scale. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 75, 541–555
39.
RodrigoG.LusiardoM.PereiraG. (1990). Relationship Between Anxiety and Performance in Soccer Players. International Journal Of Sport Psychology, 21, 112–120
40.
SandersonF.H.ReillyT. (1983). Trait and State Anxiety in Male and Female Cross-country Runners. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 17, 24–26
41.
ScanlanT.K. (1978). Perceptions and Responses of High- and Low-Competitive Trait-Anxious Males to Competition. Research Quarterly, 49, 520–527
42.
ScanlanT.K.LewthwaiteR. (1984). Social Psychological Aspects of Competition for Male Youth Sport Participants: 1. Predictors of Competitive Stress. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, 208–226
43.
ScanlanT.K.PasserM.W. (1978). Factors Related to Competitive Stress in Male Youth Sport Participants. Medicine and Science in Sports, 10, 103–108
44.
ScanlanT.K.PasserM.W. (1979). Sources of Competitive Stress in Young Female Athletes. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1, 151–159
45.
ScanlanT.K.SteinG.L.RavizzaK. (1991). An In-depth Study of Former Elite Figure Skaters: III. Sources of Stress. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13, 103–120
46.
SimonJ.A.MartensR. (1979). Children's Anxiety in Sport and Nonsport Evaluative Activities. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1, 160–169
47.
SonstroemR.J.BernardoP. (1982). Intraindividual Pregame State Anxiety and Basketball Performance: A Reexamination of the Inverted-U curve. Journal of Sport Psychology, 4, 235–245
48.
SpielbergerC.D. (1966). Anxiety and Behavior. New York: Academic Press. In: Gill, D.L. (1994). A Sport and Exercise Psychology Perspective on Stress. Quest, 46, 20–27
49.
TaylorJ. (1987). Predicting Athletic Performance with Self-confidence and Somatic and Cognitive Anxiety as a Function of Motor and Physiological Requirements in Six Sports. Journal of Personality, 55, 139–153
50.
WachtelP.L. (1968). Anxiety, Attention, and Coping with Threat. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 73, 137–143
51.
WalkerR.NidefferR.M.BoomerW. (1977). Diving performance as it is correlated with arousal and concentration time. Swimming Technique, 13, 117–122
52.
WineJ. (1971). Test Anxiety and Direction of Attention. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 92–104
53.
WongE.H.LoxC.L.ClarkS.E. (1993). Relation Between Sports Context, Competitive Trait Anxiety, Perceived Ability, and Self-Presentation Confidence. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 76, 847–850
