How Might We Map the Cultural Fields of Science? Politics and Organisms in Restoration France

Pickstone J. V. , “The origins of general physiology in France, with special emphasis on the work of R. J. H. Dutrochet”, Ph.D. thesis, University of London, Chelsea College, 1973.

Pickstone J. V. , “Bureaucracy, liberalism and the body in post-revolutionary France: Bichat's physiology and the Paris school of medicine”, History of science, xix (1981), 115–42.

Lesch J. E. , Science and medicine in France: The emergence of experimental physiology 1790–1855 (Cambridge, Mass., 1984).

See the excellent study by Williams Elizabeth A. , The physical and the moral: Anthropology, physiology and philosophical medicine in France, 1750–1850 (Cambridge, 1994).

See the still useful text by Boas George , French philosophies of the romantic period (New York, 1964).

Pickstone J. V. , “Ways of knowing: Towards a historical sociology of science, technology and medicine”, The British journal for the history of science, xxvi (1993), 433–58; “Museological science? The place of the analytical/comparative in nineteenth-century science, technology and medicine”, History of science, xxxii (1994), 111–35.

Pickstone J. V. , “Vital actions and organic physics: Henri Dutrochet and French physiology during the 1820s”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, 1 (1976), 191–212; “Absorption and osmosis: French physiology and physics in the early nineteenth century”, The physiologist, xx (1977), 30–37.

Clark Edwin Jacyna L. S. , Nineteenth-century origins of neuroscientific concepts (Berkeley, 1987), chap. 3.

Macfarlane Alan , The origins of English individualism (Oxford, 1978).

Douglas Mary , Natural symbols: Explorations in cosmology (London, 1970), esp. chap. 4.

For Saint-Simonians' biology, see Pickstone , op. cit. (ref. 2), and especially Haines B. , “The interrelations between social, biological, and medical thought, 1750–1850: Saint-Simon and Comte”, The British journal for the history of science, xi (1978), 19–35.

On romantic biologies, see Cunningham A. Jardine N. (eds), Romanticism and the sciences (Cambridge, 1990).

See Oldroyd D. R. , “Grid-group analysis for historians of science?”, History of science, xxiv (1986), 145–71.

Bourdieu Pierre , The field of cultural production (Cambridge and Oxford, 1993).

For a traditional introduction, see Mayer J. P. , Political thought in France from the Revolution to the Fifth Republic (London, 1942), chap. 2. Mayer's mapping is as follows: The Doctrinaires (Royer Collard and Guizot). The Liberals and a Non-conformist (de Stael, Constant and Sismondi). Traditional and Liberal Catholics (de Maistre, de Bonald, Lamennais, Lacordaire, Montalembert). Romanticists (Chateaubriand, Lamartine, Hugo, Michelet). Socialists (Saint-Simon, Pecqueur, Blanqui, Blanc).

Coleman W. , Georges Cuvier, zoologist: A study in the history of evolution theory (Cambridge, Mass, 1964); Outram D. , Georges Cuvier: Vocation, science, and authority in post-Revolutionary France (Manchester, 1984).

Rosanvallon Pierre , Le moment Guizot (Paris, 1985), 37.

An analytical work by Marc-Antoine Jullien de Paris, Esquisse et vues préliminaires d'un ouvrage sur l'éducation comparée (Paris, 1817), is mentioned in Hans N. , Comparative education, 3rd edn (London, 1958), 1. It is reproduced in translation, with a useful introduction, in Fraser Stewart , Jullien's plan for comparative education, 1816–1817 (Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964).

Fraser , op. cit. (ref. 18), 83–95.

See the subtle discussion in Outram , op. cit. (ref. 16), esp. pp. 80–83, 93–107.

Jacyna L. S. , “Medical science and moral science: The cultural relations of physiology in Restoration France”, History of science, xxv (1987), 111–46.

See ref. 11, and especially Appel Toby A. , The Cuvier–Geoffroy debate: French biology in the decades before Darwin (Oxford and New York, 1987), and idem, “Henri Blainville and the animal series: A nineteenth-century chain of being”, Journal of the history of biology, xxiii (1980), 291–319.

See Gouhier Henri , La jeunesse d'Auguste Comte et la formation du positivisme (3 vols, Paris, 1933–41).

For more detail, see Williams , op. cit. (ref. 4).

See ref. 22. Also Nicard P. , Étude sur la vie et les travaux de M. Ducrotay de Blainville (Paris, 1890).

Appel , op. cit. (ref. 22, 1987).

Schiller J. Schiller T. , Henri Dutrochet: La matérialisme mécaniste et la physiologie générale (Paris, 1975).

On Serres see Appel , op. cit. (ref. 22, 1987) and Williams , op. cit. (ref. 4).

Pickstone , opera cit. (ref. 7); Schiller , op. cit. (ref. 27).

Lesch , op. cit. (ref. 3); Olmsted J. M. D. , François Magendie (New York, 1944).

On Foderà, see Pickstone , op. cit. (ref. 1) and opera cit. (ref. 7).

See ref. 30.

Pickstone , opera cit. (ref. 7).

Tiedemann F. Gmelin L. , Recherches sur la route qui prennes diverses substances pour passer de l'éstomac et du canal intestinal dans le sang, sur la fonction de la rate, et sur les voies cachées de l'urine (Paris, 1821).

Mill J. S. , On liberty (Harmondsworth, 1974; first pub. 1859); Popper Karl , The poverty of historicism (London, 1957); Hayek F. A. , The counter-revolution of science: Studies in the abuse of reason (Glencoe, Ill., 1955).

Holmes F. L. , Claude Bernard and animal chemistry: The emergence of a scientist (Cambridge, Mass., 1974).

Bernard Claude , Introduction to the study of experimental medicine (New York, 1957), 88.

See Jardin André , Histoire du liberalisme politique de la crise d'absolutisme à la constitution de 1875 (Paris, 1985), chap. 13, esp. p. 233.

On Foderà, see Pickstone , opera cit. (ref. 7); “Foderà”, Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales, ser. 4, ii (1878), 101; and Foderà M. , Histoire de quelques doctrines médicales comparée à celle du Doctor Broussais (Paris, 1821); Examen des observations critiques du Dr. Broussais sur les doctrines médicales analogues à la sienne (Paris, 1822); Recherches sur les sympathies et sur d'autres phénomènes qui sont ordinairement attribués comme exclusifs au système nerveux (Paris, 1822); “Recherches expérimentales sur le système nerveux”, Journal de physiologie expérimentale, iii (1823), 35–45; “Recherches expérimentales sur l'absorption et l'exhalation”, Archives générales de médecine, ii (1823), 57–77; Discours sur la biologie ou science de la vie (Paris, 1826).

For a careful analysis of Bernard's experimental work, see Holmes , op. cit. (ref. 36).

Spitzer Alan B. , The French generation of 1820 (Princeton, N.J., 1987), and Old hatreds and young hopes: The French Carbonari against the Bourbon revolution (Cambridge, Mass, 1971); Goldstein Jan , “Foucault and the post-Revolutionary self: The uses of Cousinian Pedagogy in nineteenth-century France”, in Goldstein (ed.), Foucault and the writing of history (Cambridge, Mass., and Oxford, 1994).

See Spitzer , The French generation (ref. 41), esp. pp. 67–93.

Ibid., 81.

Mellon Stanley , The political uses of history: A study of historians in the French Restoration (Stanford, Calif., 1958), esp. pp. 5–30. See also Mary Sister O'Connor Consolata , The historical thought of Francois Guizot (Washington, D.C., 1955).