People,Institutions,and Ideas: American and British Geneticists at the Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Quantitative Biology,June 1955

This historiographical arrangement excludes, of course, a less empiricist and more literary genre, which might be associated with, for example, Pick's David War machine: The rationalisation of slaughter in the modern age (New Haven, 1993). While not completely orthogonal, especially considering the semiotic roots of Latour's oeuvre, the insights of this latter historiography are not immediately important for the present discussion. For a comprehensive review of more directly relevant debates, see Lynch Michael , Scientific practice and ordinary action: Ethnomethodology and social studies of science (Cambridge, 1993), 39–116.

See Crow James F. , “Eighty years ago: The beginnings of population genetics”, Genetics, cxix (1988), 473–6; and Provine William B. , The origins of theoretical population genetics (Chicago, 1971).

Archives of the American Philosophical Society (Philadelphia) (henceforth, A.P.S): Lerner Papers: Lerner I. M. to Wallace B. , 20 Oct. 1954. For biographical information on Lerner, see Glass Bentley , “I. Michael Lerner, 1910–1977”, Yearbook of the American Philosophical Society , 1984, 130–5; and Allen Garland E. , “The several faces of Darwin: Materialism in nineteenth and twentieth century evolutionary theory”, in Bendall D. S. (ed.), Evolution from molecules to men (Cambridge, 1983), 81–102.

Ibid.; and A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: R. E. Comstock to Program Committee, 6 Nov. 1954.

Lerner , op. cit. (ref. 3).

On agriculture and the birth of genetics in the United States, see Paul Diane Kimmelman Barbara , “Mendel in America: Theory and practice, 1900–1919”, in Rainger Ron (eds), The American development of biology (Philadelphia, 1988), 282–310. On Britain, Paolo Palladino, “Between craft and science: Plant breeding, Mendelian theory, and the universities in Britain, 1900–1920”, Technology and culture, xxxiv (1993), 300–23. On France, Gayon Jean Zallen Doris , “Le röle des Vilmorins dans les recherches sur l'hybridation en France aux XIXe et XXe siècles”, Colloque International en Hommage à Henri Lecoq, 117e Congrès National des Sociétés Savantes, Clermont Ferrand, 28 Oct. 1992. On Germany, Harwood Jonathan , “Did theory transform practice? Mendelism and plant breeding in Germany, 1880–1920”, Workshop on Ideas, Instruments and Innovation, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, 10–13 Oct. 1994.

See Harwood Jonathan , Styles of scientific thought: The German genetics community, 1900–1933 (Chicago, 1993), 357.

Clarke Adele E. Fujimura Joan H. , “What tools? Which jobs? Why right?”, in idem (eds), The right tools for the job: At work in twentieth century life sciences (Princeton, 1992), 3–44; see also Latour Bruno , We have never been modern (New York, 1993).

See Schaffer Simon , “The eighteenth Brumaire of Bruno Latour”, Studies in history and philosophy of science, xxii (1991), 174–92; cf. Latour Bruno , Science in action (Cambridge, Mass., 1987).

This view of institutions and individual agency bears some parallels with Anthony Giddens's notion of ‘structuration’; see his The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration (Berkeley, 1984). Cf. Thompson John B. , “The theory of structuration”, in Held David Thompson John B. , Social theory of modern societies: Anthony Giddens and his critics (Cambridge, 1989), 56–76; I am also concerned about the ontological implications of Giddens's grounding of his model of social structure in a seemingly a-historical psychoanalytic theory (see Giddens , op. cit., 41–109).

On intelligibility and explicative, as opposed to explanatory, narratives, see Button Graham Sharrock Wes , “A disagreement over agreement and consensus in constructionist sociology”, Journal for the theory of social behaviour, xxiii (1993), 1–25.

See Mayr Ernst Provine William B. (eds), The evolutionary synthesis: Perspectives on the unification of biology (Cambridge, Mass., 1980); Cain Joseph Allen , “Common problems and cooperative solutions: Organizational activity in evolutionary studies, 1936–1947”, Isis, lxxxiv (1993), 1–25; and Smocovitis Vassiliki Betty , “Organizing evolution: Founding the Society for the Study of Evolution (1939–1950)”, Journal of the history of biology, xxvii (1994), 241–310.

Provine W. B. , “The role of mathematical population geneticists in the evolutionary synthesis of the 1930s and 1940s”, Studies in the history of biology, iii (1978), 167–92. See also Lewontin Richard C. , “Theoretical population genetics in the evolutionary synthesis”, in Mayr Provine (eds), op. cit. (ref. 12), 58–63, and the discussion following the paper.

See Reeve E. C. R. Waddington C. H. (eds), Quantitative inheritance (London, 1952); Brown R. Danielli J. F. (eds), Evolution (Cambridge, 1953); and Buzzati-Traverso Adriano A. (ed.), Symposium on genetics of population structure (Naples, 1954).

The proceedings of these symposia and workshops are published annually as the Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology. Nathan Comfort, at the State University of New York in Stonybrook, is currently writing a dissertation on the history of the Carnegie Laboratory and these symposia.

On the importance of this meeting in the history of modern evolutionary theory, see Provine , “Mathematical population geneticists”, op. cit. (ref. 13); and Dietrich Michael , “The origins of the neutral theory of molecular evolution”, Journal of the history of biology, xxvii (1994), 21–59.

A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: Wallace B. to Lerner I. M. , 14 Oct. 1954.

Lerner, op. cit. (ref. 3).

A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: Tentative plans for the XXth Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Quantitative Biology, n.d.

A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: Crow J. F. to Lerner I. M. , n.d.; and Wallace B. to Lerner I. M. , 7 Dec. 1954.

A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: Dobzhansky T. , Suggestions for the Program, n.d.

A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: R. E. Comstock to Program Committee, 23 Nov. 1954. For biographical information on Lush, see Chapman Arthur B. , “Jay Laurence Lush, 1896–1982”, Biographical memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, lvii (1987), 277–305.

A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: R. E. Comstock to Program Committee, 2 Dec. 1954.

Kempthorne Oscar , “The correlation between relatives in random mating populations” and Hayman B.I. , “The description and analysis of gene action and interaction”, Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology, xx (1955), 60–75 and 79–84, respectively.

Ibid., 84.

See Wright S. , “Classification of the factors of evolution”; Dempster Everett R. , “Maintenance of genetic heterogeneity”; Kimura Motoo , “Stochastic processes and distribution of gene frequencies under natural selection”; and Crow James , “General theory of population genetics: Synthesis”, Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology, xx (1955), 16–25, 25–30, 33–51, and 54–59, respectively. On the problematic relationship between mathematics and biology, see Kingsland Sharon E. , Modeling nature: Episodes in the history of population ecology (Chicago, 1985).

Bell A. E. Moore C. H. Warren D. C. , “The evaluation of new methods for the improvement of quantitative characteristics”, Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology, xx (1955), 197–211.

Paul Kimmelman , op. cit. (ref. 6).

Beatty John , “Weighing the risks: Stalemate in the classical-balance controversy”, Journal of the history of biology, xx (1987), 289–319.

Bell , op. cit. (ref. 27), 211.

Ibid.

Comstock R. E. , “Theory of quantitative genetics: Synthesis”, Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology, xx (1955), 93–102, p. 93.

Robertson Alan , “Selection in animals: Synthesis”, ibid., 225–9, p. 228.

On connections between these subjects, see Allen Garland , “Chevaux de course et chevaux de trait: Metaphores agricole et analogies dans la eugénique americaine, 1910–1940”, in Fischer Jean Louis Schneider William (eds), Histoire de la genétique (Paris, 1990), 83–98.

See Bowler Peter , The eclipse of Darwinism: Anti-Darwinian evolution theories in the decades around 1900 (Baltimore, 1983); see also Morris Susan W. , “Fleeming Jenkin and The origin of species: A reassessment”, The British journal for the history of science, xxvii (1994), 313–43.

Provine , Origins. (ref. 2). For an introduction to later writings on this subject, see Bowler Peter J. , The Mendelian revolution: The emergence of hereditarian concepts in modern science and society (Baltimore, 1989), 110–26 and 138–43.

Norton Bernard , “Fisher's entrance into evolutionary science: The role of eugenics”, in Grene Marjorie (ed.), Dimensions of Darwinism: Themes and counterthemes in twentieth-century evolutionary theory (Cambridge, 1983), 19–29; on the eugenists' pragmatic eclecticism, see Mazumdar Pauline , Human genetics, and human failings (London, 1992), 58–95.

Gigerenzer Gerd , The empire of chance: How probability changed science and everyday life (Cambridge, 1989), 148–50.

Mazumdar , op. cit. (ref. 37), 58–145.

Joan Fisher Box, R. A. Fisher: The life of a scientist (New York, 1978), 267.

See Doll Richard , “Austin Bradford Hill, 1897–1991”, Biographical memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, xl (1994), 129–40, pp. 132–5.

Box, op. cit. (ref. 40), 327 and 403–4; see also MacKenzie Donald A. , Statistics in Britain, 1865–1930 (Edinburgh, 1981).

Kevles Daniel J. , In the name of eugenics: Genetics and the uses of human heredity (Berkeley, 1985), 138–42; see also, for parallel developments in Germany, Mazumdar Pauline , “Two models for human genetics: Blood grouping and psychiatry in Germany between the wars”, Bulletin of the history of medicine (forthcoming).

For biographical in formation on Hogben, see Wells G. P. , “Lancelot Thomas Hogben, 1895–1975”, Biographical memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, xxiv (1978), 183–221.

Mazumdar , op. cit. (ref. 37), 146–95.

See Hogben Lancelot , Nature and nurture (London, 1933), 91–121; and also Genetic principles in medicine and social science (London, 1931).

For biographical information on Haldane, see Pirie N. W. , “John Burdon Sanderson Haldane, 1892–1964”, Biographical memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, xii (1966), 219–49.

See Mazumdar , op. cit. (ref. 37); and Kevles , op. cit. (ref. 43), 193–222.

Bodmer Walter F. , personal communication, 1 July 1993; see also Bodmer , “Genetic sequences”, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B ccxli (1990), 85–92.

See Fisher R. A. Immer F. R. Tedin Olof , “The genetical interpretation of statistics of the third degree in the study of quantitative inheritance”, Genetics, xvii (1932), 107–24; and also Panse V. G. , “The inheritance of quantitative characters and plant breeding”, Journal of genetics, xl (1940), 283–302 (at the time this paper was published, Panse, who had been working with J. B. Hutchinson in India on the improvement of cotton, was visiting the Galton Laboratory and studying biometrical methods with Fisher).

See Provine William B. , Sewall Wright and evolutionary biology (Chicago, 1986), 34–48 and 74–80.

See Kimmelman B. A. , “The American Breeders' Association: Genetics and eugenics in an agricultural context, 1903–13”, Social studies of science, xiii (1983), 163–204, and especially pp. 172–4; and also “Organisms and interests in scientific research: R. A. Emerson's claims for the unique contributions of agricultural genetics”, in Clarke Fujimura (eds), op. cit. (ref. 8), 198–232.

Hodge M. J. S. , “Biology and philosophy (including ideology): A study of Fisher and Wright”, in Sarkar Sahotra (ed.), The founders of evolutionary genetics (Dordrecht, 1992), 231–93, especially pp. 265–8.

Harwood , op. cit. (ref. 7), 351–64.

A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: R. E. Comstock to Program Committee, 11 Nov. 1954.

Ibid.

See Zallen D. , “From butterflies to blood: Human genetics in Britain”, in Mendelson Everett (ed.), Human genetics (Dordrecht, forthcoming).

Comstock , op. cit. (ref. 22); see also Provine , Sewall Wright (ref. 51), 404–56.

Ford E. B. , “Rapid evolution on the conditions which make it possible”; Allison A. C. , “Aspects of polymorphism in man”; and Sheppard P. M. , “Genetic variability and polymorphism: Synthesis”, Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology, xx(1955), 230–8, 239–55, and 271–7, respectively.

DeJager T. , “Pure science and practical interests: The origins of the Agricultural Research Council, 1930–37”, Minerva, xxxi (1993), 129–50.

Public Record Office (London): M.A.F. 33/417.40, Joint Committee of the A.R.C., A.I.C., and A.I.C.S., 1943–44, JC/P 40, “Report by Clark R. T. Dr. , Principal Animal Geneticist, Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations, U.S.D.A., on the present and future development of animal breeding research in Great Britain”.

For biographical information on Waddington, see Robertson Alan , “Conrad Hal Waddington, 1905–1975”, Biographical memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, xxiii (1977), 575–622.

Rockefeller Archive Center (Tarrytown) (henceforth, R.A.C.): Rockefeller Foundation Papers (henceforth R.F.): 1.1.:405: 4: 44: Tisdale W. E. , 30 Apr. 1938; A.P.S.: Demerec Papers: Koller P. to Demerec M. , 20 Dec. 1939 and 2 June 1943; and Lerner Papers: I. M. Lerner to B. Wallace, 20 Oct. 1954.

Hill William G. , “Alan Robertson, 1920–1989”, Biographical memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, xxxvi (1990), 465–88, p. 471; see also Reid J. T. , “Some differences between British and American approaches to agricultural research”, Agricultural progress, xxxi (1956), 5–12.

Falconer Douglas , “Quantitative genetics in Edinburgh, 1947–1980”, Genetics, cxxxiii (1993), 137–42; and Robertson Forbes W. , “Genetics”, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, lxxxiv (1983), 211–29. On Waddington's very liberal organization of work in Edinburgh, see R.A.C.:R.F.: Record group 1.1: Series 405: Box 4: Folder 48: Pomerat G. R. , 13 May 1957.

See Reeve Waddington , op. cit. (ref. 14).

Douglas Falconer (University of Edinburgh), personal communication, 21 Jan. 1993; and Forbes Robertson to the author, 9 July and 3 Oct. 1993. Woolf Barnet , a son of Jewish immigrants from eastern Europe, had studied biochemistry at Cambridge under Frederick Gowland Hopkins. He then was occasionally associated, as a geneticist, with Lancelot Hogben at the University of Aberdeen; their political association, however, was much more lasting. Woolf later obtained a post in the Department of Public Health and Social Medicine at the University of Edinburgh under Francis Crew. After a falling out with Crew, he moved to the Institute of Animal Genetics, where he stayed until his retirement. On Woolf's membership of the Communist Party, see Werskey Gary , The visible college: A collective biography of British scientists and socialists of the 1930s (London, 1988), 93, 217 and 219. For biographical information on Mather, see Lewis David , “Kenneth Mather, 1911–1990”, Biographical memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, xxxviii (1992), 249–66.

See Woolf Barnet , “Environmental effects in quantitative inheritance”; and Mather K. , “Comment on Dr. B. Woolf's paper”, in Reeve Waddington (eds), op. cit. (ref. 14), 81–102 and 103–11, respectively.

Forbes Robertson, personal communication, 23 Aug. 1994; Provine , op. cit. (ref. 51).

Forbes Robertson, personal communication, 3 Nov. 1993. For biographical information on Darlington, see Lewis David , “Cyril Dean Darlington, 1903–1981”, Biographical memoirs of the Fellows of the Royal Society, xxviii (1982), 113–57.

See Mather K. Jinks J. , Biometrical genetics (London, 1982).

Robertson Forbes , personal communication, 3 Nov. 1993; Douglas Falconer to the author, 22 Mar. 1993.

Falconer Douglas S. , “Patterns of response in selection experiments with mice”, Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology, xx (1955), 178–96.

Robertson W. Forbes , “Selection response and the properties of genetic variation”, Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology, xx(1955), 166–77; see also Falconer Douglas S. , Introduction to quantitative genetics (Edinburgh, 1960), 269–70.

Robertson , op. cit. (ref. 33).

Mather Kenneth , Biometrical genetics: The study of continuous variation (London, 1949).

Sprague G. F. , “Problems in the estimation and utilization of genetic variability”, Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology, xx (1955), 87–92; see also Hull F. H. , “Overdominance and recurrent selection”, in Gowen J. W. (ed.), Heterosis (Ames, 1952), 451–73.

Mather Kenneth , “Response to selection”, Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology, xx (1955), 158–65.

Mather Kenneth , “The genetical structure of populations”, in Brown Danielli (eds), op. cit. (ref. 14), 66–95; and Lerner I. M. , “The current status of population genetics”, in Buzzati-Traverso , op. cit. (ref. 14), 98–100.

A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: T. Dobzhansky to Program Committee, 27 Nov. 1954.

This assessment is based on a comprehensive prosopographical survey of the membership of the Genetical Society and the Genetics Society of America from their establishment in 1919 and 1922 until 1960. The American society was officially established in 1932, but data have also been collected on the members of the joint genetics section of the Botanical Society of America and the American Zoological Society, which was first convened in 1922.

On the history of these two universities, see Poulton Bruce R. , North Carolina State University: The quest for excellence (New York, 1987); and Ross Earle D. , A history of the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanics (Ames, 1942).

See Coker R. E. , “The Department of Zoology, University of North Carolina”, Bios, xx (1949), 211–24; and Persons Stow , The University of Iowa in the twentieth century: An institutional history (Iowa City, 1990), 82–83 and 165–7.

Touchberry R. W. , “The life and contributions of Dr. Jay Laurence Lush”, in Proceedings of the animal breeding and genetics symposium in honor of Dr. Jay L. Lush (Champaign, 1973), 89–104.

On the history of this problematic concept, see Bell A. Earl , “Heritability in retrospect”, Journal of heredity, lxviii (1977), 297–300.

Touchberry , op. cit. (ref. 84), 95; and Bell , op. cit. (ref. 85), 298. See also Lush , Animal breeding plans (Ames, 1937), 64 and 84; and Animal breeding plans (Ames, 1945), 91. On Lush's eugenic outlook, see Lush Cook Robert , “Genetics for the million”, Journal of heredity, xxxviii (1946), 299–305.

On Lush and path analysis, see Freeman A. E. , “Genetic statistics in animal breeding”, in Symposium (ref. 84), 1–9; and on path analysis itself, Griesemer James R. , “Must scientific diagrams be eliminable? The case of path analysis”, Biology and philosophy, vi (1991), 155–80. See also MacKenzie , who has suggested that the acrimony of the debate between the biometricians and Mendelians was due partly to a conflict over professional competencies between biologists and mathematicians, op. cit. (ref. 42), 125–9.

On Fisher's visits to Ames, see Box, op. cit. (ref. 40), 312–24; and Lush Jay L. , “Early statistics at Iowa State University”, in Bancroft T. A. (ed.), Statistical papers in honor of George W. Snedecor (Ames, 1972), 211–26.

See Bell , op. cit. (ref. 85), 298; and Lush Jay L. , “The theory of inbreeding”, American journal of human genetics, ii (1950), 97–100.

On Lush, Kempthorne, and their different outlooks on statistical matters, see Provine , Sewall Wright (ref. 51), 468; for biographical information on Kempthorne, see Oscar Kempthorne: The Iowa State University Record (Ames, 1989).

See Kempthorne O. Federer W. T. , “The general theory of prime-power lattice designs”, Biometrics, iv (1948), 54–79 and 109–21; and Kempthorne , “On the estimation of heritability by regression of offspring on parent”, Biometrics, ix (1953), 90–100.

See Hayman , op. cit. (ref. 24), 84–86; and also Bruce Hayman to the author, 4 July 1993.

Lewontin Richard to the author, 17 Mar. 1993.

See Harshbarger Boyd , “History of the early developments of modern statistics in America (1920–1944)”, in Owen D. B. (ed.), On the history of statistics and probability (New York, 1976), 133–45.

Box, op. cit. (ref. 40), 384 and 427–8.

Robinson H. F. Comstock R. E. , “Analysis of genetic variability in corn with reference to probable effects of selection”, Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology, xx (1955), 127–35. See also Comstock R. E. , “Dominance, genotype-environment interactions and homeostasis”, in Kempthorne Oscar (ed.), Biometrical genetics (London, 1960), 3–9; and Griffing Bruce , “Historical perspectives of contributions of quantitative genetics to plant breeding”, ms. in author's possession, 21–22. On the economic importance of this biometrical work for the poultry industry, see Bugos Glenn E. , “Intellectual property protection in the American chicken-breeding industry”, Business history review, lxvi (1992), 127–68, pp. 140–6.

Comstock , op. cit. (ref. 4). The organizers fully realised that a successful meeting was not just a business of bringing together great luminaries, but also of bringing together people with the right social skills; thus, they invited Reeve, even if the value of his work had been discounted initially, because he was fast ‘on the draw’ and as such would be a good discussant; Lerner , op. cit. (ref. 3); and A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: I. M. Lerner to Program Committee, 15 Nov. 1954.

Comstock , op. cit. (ref. 32), 101.

Comstock , op. cit. (ref. 55).

Ibid.

For biographical information on Crow, see Dietrich , op. cit. (ref. 16).

See Curti Merle Carstensen Vernon , The University of Wisconsin, 1848–1925: A history (Madison, 1949); and Stadtman Verne A. , The University of California, 1868–1968 (New York, 1970).

Kimmelman Barbara A. , “A Progressive Era discipline: Genetics at American agricultural colleges and experiment stations, 1900–1920”, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1987, 238–350. See also Noland Lowell E. , “History of the department of zoology, University of Wisconsin”, Bios, xxi (1950), 83–109; and contrast this with the work of Arthur Chapman, who held joint appointments in the departments of genetics, meat and animal science, and dairy science, reported in Chapman , “Selection theory and experimental results”, in Symposium (ref. 84), 42–53.

Oliver C. P. , “Zoology at the University of Texas”, Bios, xxiii (1952), 91–108.

A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: R. E. Comstock to Program Committee, 27 Nov. 1954.

For biographical information on Stern, see Neel J. V. , “Curt Stern, 1902–1981”, Biographical memoirs of Members of the National Academy of Sciences, lvi (1987), 442–73. Dobzhansky On , see Lewontin Richard (eds), Dobzhansky's genetics of natural populations (New York, 1981), 5–77.

Harwood Jonathan , “The metaphysical foundations of the evolutionary synthesis”, Journal of the history of biology, xxvii (1994), 1–20; and James Crow to the author, 13 Apr. 1993.

Comstock , op. cit. (ref. 4).

Kimura Motoo , “Genes, populations, and molecules: A memoir”, in Ohta Tomoko Aoki Kenichi (eds), Population genetics and molecular evolution (Berlin, 1985), 459–79, p. 471.

See Dietrich , op. cit. (ref. 16).

Lewontin Richard to the author, 7 Feb. 1994.

Lewontin , op. cit. (ref. 13), 59.

Lerner I. M. , “Concluding remarks”, Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology, xx (1955), 334–40, p. 334; see also his Population genetics and animal improvement (Cambridge, 1950), 2 and 5–6.

A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: T. Dobzhansky to members of the Program Committee, 27 Nov. 1954; see also Haldane J. B. S. , “Foreword”, in Brown Danielli , op. cit. (ref. 14), pp. ix–xix.

Lerner , op. cit. (ref. 97).

Dobzhansky Theodozius , “A review of some fundamental concepts and problems of population genetics”, Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology, xx (1955), 334–40.

Mayr Ernst , “Integration of genotypes: Synthesis”, ibid. , 327–33; see also Provine , “Mathematical population geneticists”, op. cit. (ref. 13).

General Medical Council, Recommendations as to the medical curriculum (London, 1947).

Kevles , op. cit. (ref. 43), 208–11.

On the Rockefeller Foundation's policies for the biomedical sciences in the 1940s, see Paul Diane B. , “The Rockefeller Foundation and the origins of behavior genetics”, in Benson Keith R. (eds), The expansion of American biology (New Brunswick, 1991), 262–83; and on Dobzansky's connections with the Foundation around this time, see Glick Thomas F. , “The Rockefeller Foundation and the emergence of genetics in Brazil, 1943–1950”, in Cueto Marcos (ed.), Missionaries of science: The Rockefeller Foundation and Latin America (Bloomington, 1994), 149–64.

R.A.C.: R.F.: 12.1: W. E. Tisdale Logbook, p. 63.

Sapp Jan , Beyond the gene: Cytoplasmic inheritance and the struggle for authority in genetics (Oxford, 1987), 189.

See Beatty , “Weighing the risks” (ref. 29); and Dietrich , op. cit. (ref. 16).

Gowen (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 77), p. v. On the marginality of geneticists working on agricultural problems, see Kimmelman , “Organisms and interests” (ref. 52).

See Beatty , “Weighing the risks” (ref. 29).

See Beatty John , “Genetics in the atomic age: The Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission, 1947–1956”, in Benson Keith R. (eds), The expansion of American biology (New Brunswick, 1991), 284–324; and “Opportunities for genetics in the Atomic Age”, Workshop on “Institutional and disciplinary contexts of the life sciences”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, 29–30 Apr. 1994. See also Lindee M. Susan , Suffering made real: American science and the survivors at Hiroshima (Chicago, 1994).

A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: B. Wallace to I. M. Lerner, 30 Sept. 1954.

A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: B. Wallace to I. M. Lerner, 22 Oct. 1954.

Wallace , op. cit. (ref. 17).

Wallace , op. cit. (refs. 17 and 20).

Wallace B. (Virginia Polytechnic Institute) to the author, 28 Oct. 1994.

A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: Wallace B. to Lerner M. , 3 Nov. 1954; and Comstock , op. cit. (ref. 4).

A.P.S.: Lerner Papers: Wallace B. to Lerner I. M. , 7 Dec. 1954.

National Records Center (Washington): Record group 307: Accession 76–172: Box 3: Division Staff Papers, Book 1: Bryson Vernon McVaugh Rogers , “The status of basic research in agriculture, April 1956”, p. 43.

Comstock , op. cit. (ref. 55).

See Beatty , “Weighing the risks” (ref. 29).

Wallace , op. cit. (ref. 128).

See, for example, Hanson W. D. Robinson H. F. (eds), Statistical genetics and plant breeding (Washington, 1963).

Kerr Norwood Allen , The legacy: A centennial history of the state agricultural experiment stations, 1887–1987 (Columbia, 1987), 94–96.

Kempthorne O. , “The correlation between relatives in a random mating population”, Proceedings of the Royal Society, B cxliii (1954–55), 103–13; see also his The design and analysis of experiments (New York, 1952), pp. vii–xi and 1–9.

Kempthorne Oscar (ed.), Biometrical genetics (London, 1960), pp. vii–viii.

See Fisher Ronald A. to Kempthorne , 31 Jan. and 18 Feb. 1955, in Bennett J. H. (ed.), Natural selection, heredity, and eugenics (Oxford, 1983), 227–9.

See Kempthorne Oscar , “Evaluation of current population genetics theory”, American zoologist, xxiii (1983), 111–22.

See Neel James V. , Physician to the gene pool: Genetic lessons and other stories (New York, 1994), 318.

Lerner , op. cit. (ref. 3).

Medical Research Council, The hazards to man of nuclear and allied radiations (London, 1956); see also Thompson A. Landsborough , Half a century of medical research (London, 1987), pp. ii, 104–6.

Medical Research Council, op. cit. (ref. 146), 81.

Committee of Privy Council for Medical Research, Report of the Medical Research Council for the Year 1955–1956 (London, 1957), 9.

Robertson Alan , “Discussion: Some comments on quantitative genetic theories”, in Hanson Robinson , Statistical genetics (ref. 138), 108–14. For two informative summaries of Robertson's work, see Felsenstein J. , “Alan Robertson's contributions to population genetics” and Frankham R. , “Alan Robertson's contributions to quantitative genetics”, in Hill William G. Mackay Trudy F. C. (eds), Evolution and animal breeding (Wallingford, 1989), 3–11 and 83–89, respectively.

See the papers produced for the symposium on “The interface of life history evolution, whole organism ontology and quantitative genetics” organized in 1981 by the American Society of Zoologists, and then collected in vol. xxiii of the American zoologist. See also Barton Nick H. Turelli Michael , “Evolutionary quantitative genetics: How little do we know?”, Annual reviews of genetics, xxiii (1989), 337–70.

For a recent example of this historiography of institutional control, see Leslie Stuart W. , The Cold War and American science: The military-industrial-academic complex at MIT and Stanford (New York, 1994); cf. Beatty , “Opportunities for genetics in the Atomic Age” (ref. 126).

See Bourdieu Pierre , Outline of a theory of practice (Cambridge, 1977), 72–95.

Since the interests explaining particular courses of action usually are inferred, retrospective attributions, they can be said to predict outcomes; see Woolgar Steve , “Interests and explanation in the social study of science”, Social studies of science, xi (1981), 365–94.

See Pickering A. , “The mangle of practice: Emergence, impurity and irreduction in the sociology of science and technology”, American journal of sociology, xcix (1993), 559–89.

Rudwick Martin , “The closure of the Devonian controversy”, in The British Society for the History of Science and the History of Science Society: Program, papers, and abstracts for the joint conference (Madison, 1988), 155–9.