Medicine and the Management of Modern Warfare

Garrison Fielding , Notes on the history of military medicine (Washington, 1922). Important national studies include: Cantlie Neil , A history of the army medical department (2 vols, Edinburgh, 1974); Coulter J. L. S. Lloyd C. , Medicine and the navy 1200–1900 (4 vols, Edinburgh and London, 1956–63); Ghosh A. (ed.), History of the Indian armed forces medical services (Hyderabad, 1988); Fischer H. , Der Deutsche Sanitätsdienst 1921–1945: Organisation, Dokumente, und persönl Erfahrungen (Osnabruck, 1984); Rieux J. Hassenforder J. , Centenaire de l'école d'application du Service de Santé et du Val-de-Grâce (Paris, 1951); Casarini A. , La medicina militaire nella legganda e nella storia (Rome, 1929); Engelman R. C. Joy R. J. T. , Two hundred years of military medicine (Fort Detrick, Maryland, 1975). See also the following bibliographies: Poynter F. N. L. , “The evolution of military medicine”, in Higham R. (ed.), A guide to the sources of British military history (London, 1972), 591–605; Lloyd C. , “The evolution of naval medicine”, ibid. , 606–12; Freemon Frank R. , Microbes and Minie balls: An annotated bibliography of Civil War medicine (London and Toronto, 1993).

Keegan John , The face of battle: A study of Agincourt, Waterloo and the Somme (London, 1976). More recent examples include Ellis John , The sharp end of war: The fighting man in World War II (London, 1980); Beckett I. W. F. Simpson Keith (eds), A nation in arms: A social study of the British Army in the First World War (Manchester, 1988); Liddle Peter , The soldiers' war 1914–18 (London, 1988).

Cooter Roger , “Medicine and the goodness of war”, Canadian bulletin of medical history, xii (1990), 147–59; idem, “War and modern medicine”, in Bynum W. F. Porter Roy (eds), Companion encyclopedia of the history of medicine (London, 1994), 1536–73.

Weber Max , From Max Weber: Essays in sociology , ed. and transl. by Gerth H. Mills C. W. (New York, 1972), 293–4.

Marcuse Herbert , “Some social implications of modern technology”, Studies in the philosophy and sociology of science, vi (1941), 414–39.

Weber , op. cit. (ref. 4), 222.

Ibid., 261.

Chandler Alfred J. , The visible hand: The managerial revolution in American business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 72–75.

Ibid., 95.

On modern warfare generally see: Fuller J. F. C. , The conduct of war 1789–1961 (London, 1961); Ellis John , The social history of the machine gun (London, 1976); Bond Brian , War and society in Europe, 1870–1970 (London, 1984); Paret Peter (ed.), Makers of modern strategy from Machiavelli to the nuclear age (Princeton, 1986), parts 34; Fussell Paul (ed.), The Norton book of modern war (New York and London, 1991); Pick Daniel , War machine: The rationalisation of slaughter in the modern age (New Haven and London, 1993); Keegan John , A history of warfare (London, 1994), 317–86; Crook Paul , Darwinism, war and history (Cambridge, 1994).

Perkin Harold , The rise of professional society: England since 1880 (London, 1989).

See Travers T. H. E. , The killing ground: The British army, the western front and the emergence of modern warfare, 1900–1918 (London, 1987); idem, How the war was won: Command and technology in the British Army on the western front 1917–1918 (London and New York, 1992).

See Hannaway Caroline , “From private hygiene to public health: A transformation in western medicine in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries”, in Ogawa T. (ed.), Public health (Tokyo, 1981), 108–28; Lawrence Christopher , Medicine and the making of modern Britain 1700–1920 (London, 1994), 7–25.

Lawrence Christopher , “Disciplining disease: Scurvy, the Navy and imperial expansion”, in Miller D. Reill P. (eds), Visions of empire (Cambridge, 1994), 80–106. See also Lloyd C. C. , “Victualling of the fleet in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries”, in Bynum W. F. Freeman E.J. (eds), Starving sailors: The influence of nutrition upon naval and maritime history (London, 1981), 9–15; Mathias Peter , “Swords into ploughshares: The armed forces, medicine and public health in the late eighteenth century”, in Winter J. (ed.), War and economic development: Essays in memory of David Joslin (Cambridge, 1975), 73–90; Goubert P. , La médicalisation de la societé française 1770–1830 (Waterloo, Ontario, 1982); Rodger N. A. M. , The wooden world: An anatomy of the Georgian navy (Glasgow, 1988), 85–110. For the U.S. Navy, see Langley Harold D. , A history of medicine in the early U.S. Navy (Baltimore and London, 1995).

Cook Harold J. , “Practical medicine and the British armed forces after the ‘Glorious Revolution’”, Medical history, xxxiv (1979), 1–26; Cantlie Neil Sir , A history of the Army Medical Department, i (Edinburgh, 1974), 45–59.

Rosen George , A history of public health (Baltimore, 1993 edn), 137–48.

Pickstone John , “Ways of knowing: Towards a historical sociology of science, technology and medicine”, The British journal for the history of science, xxvi (1993), 433–58, p. 442.

Black Jeremy , European warfare, 1660–1815 (London, 1994), 10.

Ring Friedrich , Zur Geschichte der militärmedizin in Deutschland (Berlin, 1962), 38–46.

Moerchel Joachim , Das Österreichische Militärsanitätswesen im Zeitalter des aufgeklärten Absolutismus (Frankfurt, 1984), 19–28.

Müller-Dietz H. (ed.), Der Russische Militärtz im 18 Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1970), 26–34.

Rieux Hassenforder , op. cit. (ref. 1), 8–11.

Woloch Isser , The French veteran from the Revolution to the Restoration (Chapel Hill, 1979), 18–24.

Ring Friedrich , Zur militärmedizin in Deutschland (Berlin, 1962), 5, 31–32.

Imhof A. E. Larsen O. , Sozialgeschichte und Medizin (Oslo and Stuttgart, 1976), 88.

Brewer John , The sinews of power: War, money and the English state, 1688–1783 (London, 1989); O'Brien P. K. , “Public finance in the wars with France, 1793–1815”, in Dickinson H. T. (ed.), Britain and the French Revolution (London, 1989), 165–88.

See Peers Douglas M. , “Between Mars and Mammon: The East India Company and efforts to reform its army, 1796–1832”, Historical journal, xxxiii (1990), 385–401; idem, “War and public finance in early nineteenth-century British India: The First Burma War”, International history review, xi (1989), 628–47.

On the Indian Medical Services see Crawford D. G. , A history of the Indian Medical Service, 1600–1913 (2 vols, London, 1914); Harrison Mark , Public health in British India: Anglo-Indian preventive medicine 1859–1914 (Cambridge, 1994).

See for example, Symington J. , “Ireland and the Army Medical Service”, British medical journal, 11 April 1896, p. ii.

Hahn Roger , The anatomy of a scientific institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1656–1803 (Berkeley, 1971).

Cook , op. cit. (ref. 15), 14.

Foucault Michel , “The politics of health in the eighteenth century”, in Gordon C. (ed.), Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings by Michel Foucault (Worcester, 1988), 166–82; idem, Discipline and punish, transl. by Sheridan Alan (London, 1977); Ignatieff Michael , A just measure of pain: The penitentiary and the industrial revolution, 1750–1850 (London, 1978).

Holding J. A. , Fit for service: The training of the British Army, 1715–1795 (Oxford, 1981), 99, 114–15; Geggus David , Slavery, war and revolution: The British occupation of Saint Domingue 1793–1798 (Oxford, 1982), 347–72; Leach Douglas E. , Roots of conflict: British armed forces and colonial Americans, 1677–1763 (Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1986), 53–63; Curtin Philip D. , Death by migration: Europe's encounter with the tropical world in the nineteenth century (Cambridge, 1989); idem, “‘The White Man's Grave’: Image and reality, 1750–1850”, Journal of British studies, i (1961), 94–110; van Heteren G. M. (eds), Dutch medicine in the Malay Archipelago 1816–1942 (Amsterdam, 1989); Harrison Mark , “‘The tender frame of man’: Disease, climate, and racial difference in India and the West Indies, 1760–1860”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, lxx (1996), 68–93.

Bayne-Jones Stanhope , The evolution of preventive medicine in the United States Army, 1607–1939 (Washington, D.C., 1968), 43.

Middlekauf Robert , The glorious cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789 (New York and Oxford, 1992), 523–4. See also Meier Louis A. , The healing of an army 1777–1778 (Norristown, Penn., 1991).

The French revolutionary wars are the subject of a forthcoming book by Dr R. N. W. Thomas.

von Clausewitz C. , The campaign in Russia in 1812 (London, 1992 edn), 97; Ebstein Wilhelm , Die Krankheiten im Feldzuge gegen Russland (1812; Stuttgart, 1902).

Shepherd J. , The Crimean doctors: A history of the British medical services in the Crimean War (2 vols, Liverpool, 1991); Rieux Hassenforder , op. cit. (ref. 1), 53–57.

Nightingale's contribution to army medical reform is discussed in Smith Cecil Woodham , Florence Nightingale (London, 1950); Abel-Smith B. , A history of the nursing profession (London, 1960), 85–87, 99–101, 162–4; Hay I. , One hundred years of army nursing (London, 1953); Piggott J. , Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps (London, 1975); Smith F. B. , Florence Nightingale: Reputation and power (London and Canberra, 1982); Baly M. E. , Florence Nightingale and the nursing legacy (London, 1986).

Reid Douglas A. , Memories of the Crimean War (London, 1911); Hall John Sir , Observations on the report of the sanitary commissioners in the Crimea, during the years 1855 and 1856 (London, 1857).

Skelley Alan R. , The Victorian army at home: The recruitment and terms and conditions of the British regular (London, 1977), 19, 31.

Gabriel Richard A. Metz Karen S. , A history of military medicine, ii: From the Renaissance through modern times (New York, 1992), 199–203.

Spiers Edward M. , The army and society 1815–1914 (New York, 1980), 3, 206; idem, The late Victorian army 1868–1902 (Manchester, 1992), 90–97.

Peterson M. J. , The medical profession in mid-Victorian London (Berkeley, 1978); Lawrence Christopher , “Incommunicable knowledge: Science, technology and the clinical art in Britain, 1859–1914”, Journal of contemporary history, xx (1985), 503–20; Digby Anne , Making a medical living: Doctors and patients in the English market for medicine, 1720–1911 (Cambridge, 1994), 36–37.

Lankford N. D. , “The Victorian medical profession and military practice: Army doctors and national origins”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, liv (1984), 325–46; Peterson M. J. , The medical profession in mid-Victorian England (Berkeley, 1978), 125.

Keegan John , “The Ashanti campaign 1873–4”, in Bond B. (ed.), Victorian military campaigns (London, 1967), 163–9; Wolsley , quoted in Luce Major-General Richard Sir , “War experiences of a Territorial medical officer”, reprinted from Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, April 1935-December 1937.

Pick Daniel , War machine: The rationalisation of slaughter in the modern age (New Haven and London, 1993), 185.

Hagerman Edward , The American Civil War and the origins of modern warfare: Ideas, organization, and field command (Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1992).

Gabriel Metz , op. cit. (ref. 42), 188.

Brooks Stewart , Civil war medicine (Springfield, Ill., 1966), 75–84.

Ibid., 21.

Gabriel Metz , op. cit. (ref. 42), 198.

des Cilleuls J. , Le service de santé militaire: De ses origines à nos jours (Paris, 1961), 224–8; Haller John S. , Farmcarts to Fords: A history of the military ambulance, 1790–1925 (Carbondale and Edwardsville, Ill., 1992), 70–72. The development of military medicine during and after the Franco-Prussian War is the subject of current research by Dr Bertrand Taithe of the University of Huddersfield.

Summers A. , Angels and citizens: British women as military nurses 1854–1914 (London, 1988).

Best Geoffrey , Humanity in warfare: The modern history of the international law of armed conflicts (London, 1980), 141–3; Hutchinson John , “Rethinking the origins of the Red Cross”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, lxiii (1989), 557–78.

van Bergen Leo , De zwaargewonden eerst? Het Nederlandsche Roode Kruis en het vraagstuk van oorlog en verde 1867–1945 (Rotterdam, 1994).

Wood F.J. , The history of the Maidstone Companies, Royal Army Medical Corps (Volunteers) (Maidstone, 1907); “The Medical Volunteers Corps”, The army and navy illustrated , 17 Jan. 1903, 455–6; Howe Countess (ed.), The Imperial Yeomanry volunteers in South Africa, 1900–1902 (3 vols, London, 1902).

This point is developed in Harrison Mark , Medicine and British warfare, 1898–1918 (in preparation).

Anderson Olive , “The growth of Christian militarism in mid-Victorian Britain”, English historical review, lxxxvi (1971), 46–72. See also Koss S. , “Wesleyanism and empire”, Historical journal, xviii (1975), 105–18; Springhall J. , “Building character in the British boy: The attempt to extend Christian manliness to working-class adolescents, 1880 to 1914”, in Mangan J. A. Walvin J. (eds), Manliness and morality: Middle-class masculinity in Britain and America, 1880–1940 (Manchester, 1987), 52–74.

Useful introductions to the problem of “popular militarism/imperialism” are: Mackenzie J. M. , Propaganda and empire: The manipulation of British public opinion 1880–1960 (Manchester, 1985); idem (ed.), Imperialism and popular culture (Manchester, 1986); Reader W. J. , ‘At duty's call’: A study in obsolete patriotism (Manchester, 1988); Summers Anne , “Militarism in Britain before the Great War”, History workshop journal, ii (1976), 104–23.

Crossick G. , The lower middle class in Britain (London, 1977).

Cunningham Hugh , The volunteer force (London, 1972); Beckett I. W. F. , The amateur military tradition (Manchester, 1991). These accounts should be read alongside Price R. , An imperial war and the British working class (London, 1972), which downplays the enthusiasm of the British working class for imperial conflict.

This is developed in Harrison , op. cit. (ref. 58).

See for example: Ogston Alexander , Reminiscences of three campaigns (London, 1902); Fremantle F. E. , Impressions of a doctor in khaki (London, 1901).

This is developed in Harrison , op. cit. (ref. 58).

Bristow E. J. , Vice and vigilance: Purity movements in Britain since 1700 (Dublin, 1979); Walkowitz J. R. , Prostitution and Victorian society: Women, class and the state (Cambridge, 1980); Smith F. B. , “Ethics and disease in the late-nineteenth century: The Contagious Diseases Acts”, Historical studies, xv (1971), 118–35; idem, “The Contagious Diseases Acts reconsidered”, Social history of medicine, iii (1990), 197–215; Spongberg Mary , “The sick rose: Constructing the body of the prostitute in nineteenth century British medical discourse”, University of Sydney, Ph.D. thesis, 1993.

On the CD Acts in India see: Ballhatchet Kenneth , Race, sex and class under the Raj: Imperial attitudes and policies and their critics (London, 1980); Arnold David , Colonizing the body: State medicine and epidemic disease in nineteenth century India (Berkeley, 1993); Harrison , op. cit. (ref. 28), 72–76; Levine Philippa , “Venereal disease, prostitution, and the politics of empire: The case of British India”, Journal of the history of sexuality, iv (1994), 579–602. See also Kehoe Jean , “Medicine, sexuality, and imperialism. British medical discourses surrounding venereal disease in new Zealand and Japan: A socio-historical comparative study”, Victoria University of Wellington, Ph.D. thesis, 1992.

Beardsley H. , “Allied against sin: American and British responses to venereal disease in World War I”, Medical history, xx (1976), 189–202; Towers Bridget A. , “Health education policy 1916–1926: Venereal disease and the prophylaxis dilemma”, Medical history, xxiv (1980), 70–87; Buckley Suzann , “The failure to resolve the problem of venereal disease among the troops in Britain during World War I”, in Bond B. Roy I. (eds), War and society: A yearbook of military history, ii (London, 1977), 65–85.

Harrison Mark , “The British Army and the problem of venereal disease in France and Egypt during the First World War”, Medical history, xxxix (1995), 133–58.

This is developed in Harrison , op. cit. (ref. 58).

Cooter , op. cit. (ref. 3).

This is developed in Harrison , op. cit. (ref. 58).

Cooter Roger , Surgery and society in peace and war: Orthopaedics and the organisation of modern medicine, 1880–1948 (London, 1993).

A separate Army Dental Corps was established in 1921, and a Pathology Directorate in 1919. See Godden L. J. (ed.), History of the Army Dental Corps (Aldershot, 1971) and unpublished biography of Bruce David Sir , 264–5, in Contemporary Medical Archives, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine [hereafter: CMAC], RAMC 650.

This is developed in Harrison , op. cit. (ref. 58).

Garrison , Notes on the history of military medicine (ref. 1), 193.

Harrison Mark , “Medicine and the culture of command: Malaria control in the British Army during the two world wars”, Medical history, xl (1996), 437–52.

Willcox W. H. , Mesopotamia (1916–1919) (London, 1919), 19.

Crew F. A. E. , The Army Medical Services: Campaigns, v: Burma (London, 1966); Bellamy R. F. , “Preventable casualties: Rommel's flaw, Slim's edge”, Army , May 1990, 52–56; Slim Viscount , Defeat into victory (London, 1965), 354–5; Lewin Ronald , Slim: The standard bearer (London, 1990), 191; Harrison Mark , “Medicine”, in Dear I. C. B. Foot M. R. D. (eds), The Oxford companion to the Second World War (Oxford, 1995), 723–31.

Sturdy Steve , “The political economy of scientific medicine: Science, education and the transformation of medical practice in Sheffield, 1890–1922”, Medical history, xxxvi (1992), 125–59; Rosen George , “The efficiency criterion in medical care, 1900–1920: An early approach to an evaluation of health service”, Bulletin of the history of medicine , 1 (1976), 28–44; Rosenberg C. E. , “Inward vision and outward glance: The shaping of the American hospital, 1880–1914”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, liii (1976), 346–91; Reverby Susan , “Stealing the golden eggs: Ernest Amory Cochman and the science and management of medicine”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, lv (1981), 156–71; de Swaan Abram , In care of the state: Health care, education and welfare in Europe and the U.S.A. in the modern era (Cambridge, 1988).

On the production and use of new medical technologies during the Second World War see: Green F. H. K. Covell Gordon Sir (eds), Medical research: Medical history of the Second World War (London, 1953); Crew , op. cit. (ref. 79), 640–7; Raina B. L. (ed.), Official history of the Indian armed forces in the Second World War 1939–45. Medical services: Administration , i (Kanpur, 1953), 467–8; Barker B. M. , “The suppression of malaria”, in Heaton L. D. (ed.), Internal medicine in World War II: Infectious diseases (Washington, D.C., 1963), 465–77; Neushul Peter , “Science, government and the mass production of penicillin”, Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences, xxxviii (1993), 371–95; Power Helen , “Malaria, drugs and World War II: The role of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine in the development of paluride”, unpublished manuscript; Harrison , op. cit. (ref. 58).

The German Army was using mobile blood transfusion units on the Eastern Front by 1941: See Fischer , op. cit. (ref. 1), 592. But during the last years of the war the supply of blood was interrupted by Allied bombing raids and because technical equipment was in short supply: Kendrick D. B. , Medical department, United States Army blood program in World War II (Washington, D.C., 1964), 22–23; Bringmann J. , Problemkreis Schussbruch bei der deutschen Wehrmacht im zweiten Weltkreig (Düsseldorf, 1981), 36. On blood transfusion in other forces see: Crew F. A. E. , The army medical services. Campaigns, ii: Hong-Kong, Malaya, Iceland and Faroes, Libya 1942–1943, North-West Africa (London, 1957), 519–25; Cope Zachary , History of the Second World War United Kingdom medical services: Surgery (London, 1953), 6–8.

Gabriel Metz , op. cit. (ref. 42), 259.

Raina , op. cit. (ref. 81), 449; Dignan Patrick , A doctor's experiences of life (Bishop Auckland, Durham, 1994), 88.

Harrison , op. cit. (ref. 69).

Valentin Rolf , Die krankenbataillone Sonderformation der deutschen Wehrmacht im zweiten Weltkrieg (Düsseldorf, 1981), 22.

Harrison , op. cit. (ref. 77).

Sturdy Steve , “From the trenches to the hospitals at home: Physiologists, clinicians and oxygen therapy, 1914–30”, in Pickstone John V. (ed.), Medical innovation in historical perspective (London, 1992), 104–23.

Harrison Mark , “Crossing the danger line: Diet, disease and morale in Mesopotamia”, in Liddle Peter Cecil Hugh (eds), Facing Armageddon: The First World War experienced (London, forthcoming).

Zuckerman Solly , Scientists and war: The impact of science on military and civil affairs (London, 1966), 17.

Gibson T. M. Harrison M. H. , Into thin air: A history of aviation medicine in the RAF (London, 1984); Rexford-Welch S. C. , The Royal Air Force medical services, i: Administration (London, 1954); Reimer T. , Die Entwicklung der Flugmedizin in Deutschland (Cologne, 1979); Surgeon-General's Department, US Air Force, German aviation medicine: World War II (2 vols, New York, 1947).

Copp Terry McAndrew Bill , Battle exhaustion: Soldiers and psychiatrists in the Canadian Army, 1939–1945 (Montreal, 1990). For the British Army see Ahrenfeldt R. H. , Psychiatry in the British Army in the Second World War (London, 1958).

Howell Joel D. , “Soldier's heart: The redefinition of heart disease and speciality formation in early twentieth-century Great Britain”, Medical history, suppl. v (1985), 34–52.

On ‘shellshock’ see Lynch P. J. , “The exploitation of courage: Psychiatric care in the British Army, 1914–1918”, London University, M.Phil. thesis, 1977; Stone Martin , “Shellshock and the psychiatrists”, in Bynum W. F. Porter R. Shepherd M. (eds), The anatomy of madness , ii (London, 1985), 242–71; Bogacz Ted , “War neuroses and social cultural change in England, 1914–22: The work of the War Office committee of enquiry into ‘shell-shock’”, Journal of contemporary history, xxiv (1989), 237–56; Merksey Harold , “Shell-shock”, in Berrios German E. Freeman Hugh (eds), 150 years of British psychiatry, 1841–1991 (London, 1991), 245–67. The ethical dilemmas of the military doctor in wartime are considered in Ian Whitehead, “Not a doctor's work? The role of British front-line medical officers in the First World War”, in Liddle Cecil (eds), op. cit. (ref. 89).

Two useful introductions to medicine and imperialism are Arnold David (ed.), Imperial medicine and indigenous societies (Manchester, 1988) and MacLeod Roy Lewis Milton (eds), Disease, medicine and empire: Perspectives on Western medicine and the experience of European expansion (London and New York, 1988).

Lyons Maryinez , The colonial disease: A social history of sleeping sickness in northern Zaire, 1900–1940 (Cambridge, 1992); Vaughan Megan , Curing their ills: Colonial power and African illness (Cambridge, 1991); Arnold , op. cit. (ref. 67).

Harrison , op. cit. (ref. 28).

MacNalty Arthur S. Mellor W. Franklin , Health recovery in Europe (London, 1946); Crew F. A. E. , The army medical services. Campaigns, iv: North-West Europe 1944–45 (London, 1962), 537–8.

Harris Sheldon H. , Japan's secret biological warfare projects in Manchuria and China 1932–1945 and the American cover up (London, 1994).

Müller-Hill Benno , transl. by Fraser G. R. , Murderous science. Extermination by scientific selection of Jews, gypsies and others: Germany 1933–1945 (Oxford, 1988); Weindling Paul , Health, race and German politics between national unification and Nazism 1870–1945 (Cambridge, 1989), 552, 559–64; Hoedeman Paul , Hitler or Hippocrates: Medical experiments and euthanasia in the Third Reich (Lewes, Sussex, 1991).

Leven Karl-Heinz , “Fleckfieber beim Deutschen heer während des Kriegs gegen die Sowjetunion (1941–45)”, in Guth E. (ed.), Vorträge zur Militärgeschichte, ii: Sanitätswesen im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Bonn, 1990), 127–66; Crome Len , Unbroken: Resistance and survival in the concentration camps (London, 1988), 89–90.

See Collumbine H. , “Chemical warfare experiments using human subjects”, British medical journal, 1946, ii, 576–8.

See Newman George Sir , Health and social evolution (London, 1931).

Cowell E. , “Health notes from the office of the surgeon, AFHQ”, 1944, CMAC, RAMC 466.

Hales Mike , “Management science and the ‘Second Industrial Revolution’”, in Levidow Les (ed.), Radical science essays (London, 1986), 62–87.

“A great black snowball”, Ministry of Health leaflet, 1942, CMAC, RAMC 651/3.

Brandt Allan M. , No magic bullet: A social history of venereal disease in the United States since 1880 (New York and Oxford, 1985).

Research Defence Society, Quarterly Report, April 1915, 4; The abolitionist (journal of the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection), 1 March 1916.

Arnold , op. cit. (ref. 67), 95.

Col. W. J. Officer, “Special Force. Report on the medical aspects of operations for the period 1943–4: Some observations by a column MO”, CMAC, RAMC 816.

Harrison , op. cit. (ref. 69), 144–6; “Recommendations for the prevention of V.D. amongst the Allied forces in the Central Mediterranean Theatre of War”, 2, Cowell Papers, CMAC, RAMC 466/8.

Col. W. J. Officer “Report on the medical aspects of operations of the 2nd Division for the period November 1944 to April 1945”, 25, CMAC, RAMC 815; Anti-malaria campaign leaflet, Central Mediterranean Force, 1945, CMAC, RAMC 2063/38.

Omissi David , The sepoy and the raj: The Indian Army, 1860–1940 (London, 1994), 61–63; Harrison , op. cit. (ref. 58).

“Malingerer's guide” (disguised as match book), CMAC, RAMC 349.

See for example, Harrison , op. cit. (ref. 58); Omissi , op. cit. (ref. 113), 118–22.

Harrison , opera cit. (refs 58 and 89).

See proceedings of courts martial in WO 71, Public Record Office, especially WO 71/416, 422, 490, 519, 527 and 620.

Leed Eric J. , No Man's Land: Combat and identity in World War I (Cambridge, 1979), 163–83.

Jones Colin , “The welfare of the French foot-soldier from Richleau to Napoleon”, in his The charitable imperative: Hospitals and nursing in ancien regime and revolutionary France (London, 1989).

Woloch , op. cit. (ref. 23), 46–50.

Prost Antoine , Les anciens combatants et la société française, 1914–1939 (Paris, 1977); Whalen R. W. , Bitter wounds: German victims of the Great War, 1914–1939 (Ithaca and London, 1984).

Koven Seth , “Remembering and dismemberment: Crippled children, wounded soldiers, and the Great War in Great Britain”, American historical review, xciv (1994), 1167–202. The war disabled are also the subject of current work by Dr Joanna Bourke, Birkbeck College, London.

Floud Roderick Wachter Kenneth Gregory Annabel , Height, health and history: Nutritional status in the United Kingdom, 1750–1980 (Cambridge, 1990), 306–7.

Chamberlain J. E. Gilman S. L. (eds), Degeneration: The dark side of progress (New York, 1985); Floud R. C. Gregory A. Wachter K. W. , “The physical state of the British working class, 1870–1914: Evidence from Army recruits”, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working paper 1661 (1985); Searle G. R. , “Eugenics and class”, in Webster C. (ed.), Biology, medicine and society, 1840–1940 (Cambridge, 1981), 217–42; Nye R. A. , Crime, madness and politics in modern France: The medical concept of national decline (Princeton, 1984).

MacPherson W. G. , History of the Great War based on official documents: Medical services. General history, i (London, 1921), 118–34.

Davin Anna , “Imperialism and motherhood”, History workshop journal, v (1978), 5–65; Dwork Deborah , War is good for babies and other young children: A history of the infant and child welfare movement in England 1898–1918 (London, 1987); Fox Enid , “Powers of life and death: Aspects of maternal welfare in England and Wales between the wars”, Medical history, xxxix (1991), 328–52; Hirst D. , “The growth of treatment through the School Medical Service, 1908–1918”, Medical history, xxxiii (1989), 318–42.

Titmuss Richard , “War and social policy”, in his Essays on “the welfare state” (London, 1958), 75–87, p. 86.

Titmuss R. , Problems of social policy (London, 1950); Abel-Smith Brian , The hospitals, 1800–1948 (Cambridge, Mass., 1964); MacNalty A. S. , The civilian health and medical services, i (London, 1953), 30.

Webster Charles , The health services since the War, i: Problems of health care. The National Health Service before 1957 (London, 1988).

Fox Daniel M. , Health policies, health politics: The British and American experience, 1911–1965 (Princeton, 1986); idem, “The National Health Service and the Second World War: The elaboration of consensus”, in Smith H. L. (ed.), War and social change: British society in the Second World War (Manchester, 1986), 32–57.

Smith F. B. , “Agent Orange: The Australian aftermath”, in O'Keefe B. G. Smith F. B. , Medicine at war: Medical aspects of Australia's involvement in Southeast Asia 1950–1972 (St Leonards, N.S.W., 1994), 283–363.

Walker Martin , “Lethal exposure”, The Guardian, 20 June 1994.

Daily Telegraph , 16 August 1993; The [Sheffield] Star, 17 November 1994.