Dualism and the Transformation of Psychiatric Language in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

Goldstein Jan , “Psychiatry”, in Bynum W. F. Porter Roy (eds), Companion encyclopedia of the history of medicine (2 vols, London, 1993), ii, 1350–72. See also Goldstein Jan , Console and classify: The French psychiatric profession in the nineteenth century (Cambridge, 1987); Scull Andrew , The most solitary of afflictions: Madness and society in Britain, 1700–1900 (New Haven, 1993).

The most powerful proponent of this ‘continuity’ view is Roy Porter, Mind-forg'd manacles: A history of madness in England from the Restoration to the Regency (London, 1987), espec. pp. 1–15. See also important works by Weiner Dora B. , “The origins of psychiatry: Pinel or the Zeitgeist?” in Bauer Otto Glandien Otto (eds), Zusammenhang Festschrift für Marielene Putscher (Cologne, 1984), 617–31; idem, “Mind and body in the clinic: Philippe Pinel, Alexander Crichton, Dominique Esquirol, and the birth of psychiatry”, in Rousseau G. S. (ed.), The languages of psyche: Mind and body in Enlightenment thought (Los Angeles, 1990), 331–402.

The inspiration to the now ongoing research was provided by Foucault Michel , Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique , 2nd edn (Paris, 1972). For a useful assessment of the field, see Smith Roger , “The background of physiological psychology in natural philosophy”, History of science, xi (1973), 75–123; Rousseau G. S. , “Psychology”, in Rousseau G. S. Porter Roy (eds), The ferment of knowledge (Cambridge, 1980), 143–210; papers in Rousseau (ed.), The languages of psyche (ref. 2); Fox Christopher , “Introduction: Defining eighteenth-century psychology: Some problems and perspectives”, in Fox Christopher (ed.), Psychology and literature in the eighteenth century (New York, 1987), 1–22; Richards Graham , Mental machinery: The origins and consequences of psychological ideas, Part I: 1600–1850 (Baltimore, 1992).

Good overviews of the scholarship on early moral treatment and psychiatric institutions are given in Scull , op. cit. (ref. 1), 1–114; Porter Roy , “Madness and its institutions”, in Wear Andrew (ed.), Medicine in society (Cambridge, 1992), 277–301. For the importance of the new institutional basis of the asylum and the therapeutic breakthrough of moral treatment, see also Goldstein , “Psychiatry” (ref. 1).

Porter , op. cit. (ref. 2), 136–160, 206–28; idem, “The shaping of psychiatric knowledge: The role of the asylum”, in Porter Roy (ed.), Medicine and the Enlightenment (Amsterdam, 1995), 256–73. See also Ackerknecht Erwin H. , “Private institutions in the genesis of psychiatry”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, lx (1986), 387–95.

Parry-Jones William Li. , The trade in lunacy (London, 1972); Carpenter Peter K. , “Thomas Arnold: A provincial psychiatrist in Georgian England”, Medical history, xxxiii (1989), 199–216; Winston Mark , “The Bethel at Norwich: An eighteenth-century hospital for lunatics”, Medical history, xxxviii (1994), 27–51.

Andrews Jonathan , “Bedlam revisited: A history of Bethlem Hospital c. 1634–c. 1770”, University of London Ph.D. dissertation, 1991; idem, “‘Hardly a hospital, but a charity for pauper lunatics’?: Therapeutics at Bethlem in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries”, in Barry Jonathan Jones Colin (eds), Medicine and charity before the welfare state (London, 1991), 63–81; idem, “A respectable mad-doctor?: The career of Dr. Richard Hale (1670–1728), F.R.S., F.R.C.P. Physician to Bethlehem Hospital”, Notes and records of the Royal Society of London, xliv (1990), 169–203.

See, however, Scull Andrew , “The domestication of madness”, in Scull , Social order/Mental disorder (London, 1989), 54–79; idem, op. cit. (ref. 1), 61–64.

In this sense, this paper is an attempt to reply to a strategically important article, Berrios G. E. , “Historiography of mental systems and diseases”, History of psychiatry, v (1994), 175–90. Despite its vituperative overstatements, the article reminds those whom Berrios calls “professional historians” of the danger of history of psychiatry without psychiatric concepts.

Mora George , “French ideology at the dawn of the American nation: Cabanis and Jefferson on psychology and mental health care”, in Riese Hertha (ed.), Historical explorations in medicine and psychiatry (New York, 1978), 109–41. For a more detailed study of Cabanis, see Staum Martin S. , Cabanis: Enlightenment and medical philosophy in the French Revolution (Princeton, 1980).

Bynum William F. , “Rationales for therapy in British psychiatry, 1780–1835”, in Scull Andrew (ed.), Madhouses, mad-doctors, and madmen: The social history of psychiatry in the Victorian era (London, 1981), 35–57; Cooter Roger , “Phrenology and British alienists, ca. 1825–1845”, ibid. , 58–104; Jacyna L. S. , “Somatic theories of mind and the interests of medicine in Britain, 1850–1879”, Medical history, xxvi (1982), 233–58.

Especially I owe a debt to two papers by John P. Wright on the different versions of dualism of Boerhaave and Cullen: John P. Wright, “Boerhaave on minds, human beings, and mental diseases”, Studies in eighteenth-century culture, xx (1990), 289–302; idem, “Metaphysics and physiology: Mind, body, and the animal economy in eighteenth-century Scotland”, in Stewart M. A. (ed.), Studies in the philosophy of the Scottish Enlightenment (Oxford, 1990), 251–301.

For the process of the transformation of institution into a site for producing a new type of knowledge, see Pickstone John V. , “Museological science? The place of the analytical/comparative in nineteenth-century science, technology and medicine”, History of science, xxxii (1994), 111–38.

For the medico-philosophical questions over psychiatry in eighteenth-century Germany, see Doerner Klaus , Madman and the bourgeoisie: A social history of insanity and psychiatry (Oxford, 1981), 164–226; Verwey G. , Psychiatry in an anthropological and biomedical context (Dordrecht, 1984); Geyer-Kordesch Johanna , “Passions and the ghost in the machine: Or what not ask about science in seventeenth- and eighteenth century Germany”, in French Roger Wear Andrew (eds), The medical revolution of the seventeenth century (Cambridge, 1989), 145–63.

For popular or non-regular healing of madness, see MacDonald Michael , Mystical Bedlam: Madness, anxiety, and healing in seventeenth-century England (Cambridge, 1981); idem, “Religion, social change, and psychological healing in England, 1600–1800”, in Sheils W. J. (ed.), The church and healing (Oxford, 1982), 101–25.

For sixteenth- and seventeenth-century debate on immortality, see Michael Emily Michael Fred S. , “Two early modern concepts of mind: Reflecting substance vs. thinking substance”, Journal of the history of philosophy, xxvii (1989), 29–48.

Yolton John W. , Thinking matter: Materialism in eighteenth century Britain (Oxford, 1983); Jacob Margaret C. , The radical Enlightenment: Pantheists, freemasons and republicans (London, 1981).

Lucretius , De rerum natura libri sex , ed. and transl. by Bailey Cyril (3 vols, Oxford, 1947), i, 325–29; Henry John , “The matter of souls: Medical theory and theology in seventeenth-century England”, in French Wear (eds), op. cit. (ref. 14), 87–113.

Baxter Andrew , An enquiry into the nature of the human soul , 2nd edn (2 vols, London, 1737), i, 382–3, 386. See Yolton , op. cit. (ref. 17).

Bright Timothy , A treatise of melancholie (London, 1586), “Epistle dedicatory” and 188.

Bright , A treatise of melancholie, 36–38. For discussion of popular perceptions of doctors as atheists, see Henry , “The matter of souls” (ref. 18).

du Laurens André , A discourse of the preservation of the sight: Of melancholike diseases; of rheumes, and of old age , transl. by Surphlet Richard (London, 1599), 81–82. For the similar concern to refute atheistic polemical use of madness in the eighteenth century, see Suzuki Akihito , “Anti-Lockean enlightenment?: Mind and body in early eighteenth-century England”, in Porter (ed.), Medicine in the Enlightenment (ref. 5), 336–59.

For the distinction between interactive and purely spiritual faculties in the seventeenth century, see Cottingham John , “Cartesian trialism”, Mind, xciv (1985), 218–30.

Sennert Daniel , The institutions or fundamental of the whole art, both of physick and chiurgery , transl. by N. D. B. P. (London, 1656), 29; for different opinions on this issue held by ancient and medieval medical writers, see Burton Robert , The anatomy of melancholy, ed. with an introduction by Jackson Holbrook (New York, 1977), Part I, 171–2.

Rivière Lazare , The practice of physick, in several books … by Nicholas Culpeper, Abdiah Cole and William Rowland. Being chiefly a translation of the works of … Lazarus Riverius (London, 1655), 49. See also Laurens , op. cit. (ref. 22), 91.

Bright , op. cit. (ref. 21), 103. For the complex concept of melancholy and its metaphorical role, see Céard Jean , “Folie et démonologie au XVIe siècle”, Gerlo A. (ed.), Folie et déraison à la Renaissance (Brussels, 1976), 129–48.

Descartes René , Optics, in The philosophical writings of Descartes , ed. by Cottingham John (3 vols, Cambridge, 1984–91), i, 153. For the medical use of the theory of intentional species, see, for example, Anthropologie abstracted: Or the idea of humane nature (London, 1655), 102.

Descartes , op. cit. (ref. 27), 167–8.

Ibid., 172.

Foucault , op. cit. (ref. 3), 56–59.

Boyle Robert , Robert Boyle on natural philosophy: An essay with selections from his writings , ed. by Hall Marie Boas (Bloomington, 1965), 255–6; Willis Thomas , Two discourses concerning the soul of brutes , transl. by Portage Sydney (London, 1683), 188–90; idem, Thomas Willis's Oxford lectures, transl. and ed. by Dewhurst Kenneth (Oxford, 1980), 54 and 65–66.

There is now a debate over the place of Descartes in the history of psychiatry. See McMahon C. E. , “The role of imagination in the disease process: Pre-cartesian history (the role of imagination in the disease process)”, Psychological medicine, vi (1976), 179–84; Brown Theodore M. , “Descartes, dualism, and psychosomatic medicine”, in Bynum W. F. (eds), The anatomy of madness: Essays in the history of psychiatry (3 vols, London, 1985–88), i, 40–62; Wright , “Boerhaave on minds” (ref. 12), 302.

For detailed study of the school of Pitcairn, see Guerrini Anita , “Archibald Pitcairn and Newtonian medicine”, Medical history, xxxi (1987), 70–83; idem, “The Tory Newtonians: Gregory, Pitcairne and their circle”, Journal of British studies, xxv (1986), 288–311.

Mead Richard , A mechanical account of poisons in several essays (London, 1702), 64. See also Pitcairn Archibald , The philosophical and mathematical elements of physick in two books (London, 1718), 186. As for Descartes's and Willis's concepts of involuntary and ‘reflex’ motion, see Canguilhem Georges , La formation du concept du réflex aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles (Paris, 1977), 27–78.

Strother Edward , Criticon febrium (London, 1718), 20. There is no sign that Strother was joking here.

Mead , op. cit. (ref. 34), 82 and 64.

Locke John , An essay concerning human understanding , ed. with an introduction by Nidditch Peter H. (Oxford, 1975), 2.11.13; John Locke 1632–1704: Physician and philosopher , ed. by Dewhurst Kenneth (London, 1963), 70, 71 and 89–90. Dewhurst's crucial mistranslation of a relevant passage is pointed out in Wright John P. , “Association, madness, and the measures of probability in Locke and Hume”, in Fox (ed.), Psychology and literature in the eighteenth century (ref. 3), 103–27. For expressions of a similar view to Locke's, see Etmueller Michael , Etmullerus abridg'd: Or a compleat system of the theory and practice of physick (London, 1699), 532.

Wright , “Boerhaave on minds” (ref. 12). Boerhaave, Haller and Jerome Gaub (another disciple of Boerhaave who succeeded his mentor to the chair at Leiden) were worried at the new onslaught of materialism, all the more because they themselves were sometimes associated with Spinoza and La Mettrie. See Vartanian Aram , La Mettrie's L'homme machine: A study in the origins of an idea (Princeton, 1960), 201; Gaub Jerome , Mind and body in eighteenth century medicine: A study of Jerome Gaub's De regime mentis, ed. by Rather L. J. (London, 1965), 115–22.

Boerhaave Herman , Dr. Boerhaave's academical lectures on the theory of physic (6 vols, London, 1742–46), iv, 239. The passage cited is Haller's commentary on Boerhaave's lecture.

“Preface” by Samuel-August Tissot to Albrecht von Haller, A dissertation on the sensible and irritable parts of animals (London, 1755), p. xxix.

Boerhaave , op. cit. (ref. 39), iv, 258–9. See also von Haller Albrecht , First lines of physiology, reprint of 1786 edn, with an introduction by Lester King (New York, 1966), ii, 35–37.

The essential continuity in the disease concepts of melancholia of Laurens, Willis, and Boerhaave is discussed in Jobe Thomas Harmon , “Medical theories of melancholia in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries”, Clio medica, xi (1976), 217–31.

Arnold Thomas , Observations on the nature, kinds, causes and prevention of insanity, 2nd edn (2 vols, London, 1806), i, 30–43.

Boerhaave , op. cit. (ref. 39), v, 270. See also his exclusion of the problem of the mind itself from the entire realm of medicine at the beginning of the work, which says that physiology should study man as the body, “not as a metaphysical entity, not as a mind … for consideration of the two do not at all come under the province of the physicians”. Ibid., i, 53.

In Hunter and Macalpine's Three hundred years of psychiatry, there is an entry from Locke's own Essay published in 1690. The next time that Locke's name appears in the book is in the entry for David Hartley's Observations on man, published more than half a century after. Hunter Richard Macalpine Ida , Three hundred years of psychiatry (London, 1963), 236–39 and 379–82. As far as I am able to find, Hollings John , The state of human nature delineated, as delivered in a Latin oration before the President and Fellows of the College of Physicians 1734 (London, 1734), 10, is the only favourable reference to Locke in the context of medical psychology, and it is but a passing remark. See Suzuki , op. cit., (ref. 22).

Boerhaave , op. cit. (ref. 39), v, 273.

Locke , Essay (ref. 37), 1.1.2.

For a general account of the theories of perception in the eighteenth century, see Yolton John , Perceptual acquaintance from Descartes to Reid (Oxford, 1984).

Locke , Essay (ref. 37), 2.9.8. As for philosophical interpretations of this passage, see Aaron Richard I. , John Locke , 3rd edn (Oxford, 1971), 133–6; Yolton John , Locke: An introduction (Oxford, 1985), chap. 5. As for the philosophical problem of perception, see Yolton , op. cit. (ref. 48).

Locke , Essay (ref. 37), 2.9.8. See Morgan Michel J. , Molyneux's question: Vision, touch, and the philosophy of perception (Cambridge, 1977); Cassirer Ernst , The philosophy of enlightenment (Princeton, 1979), 108–18.

Berkeley George , Philosophical works , ed. and intro. by Ayers M. R. (London, 1975), 161; Hume David , A treatise of human nature , ed. by Nidditch P. H. (Oxford, 1978), 112. See Morgan , op. cit. (ref. 50); Yolton , op. cit. (ref. 48).

Voltaire , Philosophical dictionary , ed. and transl. by Besterman Theodore (Harmondsworth, 1972), 210. See Foucault , op. cit. (ref. 3), 227–31.

Voltaire , op. cit. (ref. 52), 210.

Ibid., 211.

For the interpretation of Battie as a progressive theoretician and Monro as a reactionary, see especially Hunter Macalpine , op. cit. (ref. 45), 402–16.

Battie William , A treatise on madness (London, 1758), 6 and 43.

For a similar account of madness apparently inspired by mid-century experiments on nervous sensibility of animals, see Uvedale Christian , The construction of the nerves, and the causes of nervous disorders (London, 1758), 11–13. See Suzuki Akihito , “Mind and its disease in Enlightenment British medicine”, University of London Ph.D. dissertation, 1992, 228–45.

[ Smollett Tobias ], “Review of Monro's Remarks”, Critical review, v (1757), 224, observed that Monro was motivated to publish the tract because of Battie's attack to Bethlem and its former physician James Monro, John's father.

Monro John , Remarks on Dr. Battie's Treatise on madness (London, 1758), 9.

Ibid., 4.

Ibid.

“To Dr. Battie”, Gentleman's magazine, xxxiii (1763), 20–21. The article is signed “T.I”. There is no clue to its authorship. Internal evidence seems to suggest that the author is competent in the philosophy of Scottish Common Sense school.

Ibid., 20.

Ibid., 21. The author rendered the contrast clearer by twisting the example of an optical illusion: “Suppose a man, through a disorder in the optic organs, perceiveth that phenomenon which is called lightening; this man, if he consideres the species as connected with a distemper in the eye, is not thought mad; but if he take it to be a sign of thunder, rain, etc., we do not hesitate him fit for Bedlam.”.

The best study of Sauvages's nosology is Martin Julian , “Sauvages's nosology: Medical enlightenment in Montpellier”, in Cunningham Andrew Wear Andrew (eds), The medical enlightenment of the eighteenth century (Cambridge, 1990), 111–37.

de Sauvages François Boissier , Nouvelles classes de maladies (Avignon, [1732]), 288–322.

Ibid., 291. Understandably, this explanatory model did not explain the section of diseases of will, and Sauvages left it rather isolated from the other two sections.

de Sauvages François Boissier , Nosologie méthodique, dans laquelle les maladies sont rangées par classes… (3 vols, Paris, 1770–71), ii, 587–759, “Huitième classe, des folies”. von Linné Carl , Genera morborum (Upsala, 1763); Sagar J. B. M. , Systema morborum symptomaticum (Vienna, 1771); Diderot d'Alembert (eds), L'Encyclopédie (Paris, 1751–80), article, “maladie”, adopted the tripartite classificatory scheme.

Sauvages , op. cit. (ref. 68), ii, 593. Likewise, a drunken man sees two candles and believes there are two when there is actually one, while a sober person suffering from a disorder of sight sees two but can tell there is one.

Ibid., ii, 601.

Ibid., ii, 593.

Sauvages had been sympathetic to Stahl since the 1730s (Sauvages, op. cit. (ref. 66), pp. ii–iii). Sauvages's debt to Wolff was most evident in Sauvages, Ouvres diverses (2 vols, Paris, 1776), i, 12–13.

Sauvages , op. cit. (ref. 68), ii, 592. As for the background of the Montpellier Medical School, see Jones Colin , “Montpellier medical students and the medicalization of eighteenth-century France”, in Porter Roy Wear Andrew (eds), Problems and methods in the history of medicine (London, 1987), 57–80.

Sauvages , op. cit. (ref. 68), ii, 601.

Ibid. , ii, 602. Here again, Sauvages repudiating his own earlier idea of the division of labour between moralists and doctors, according to whether the mental disturbance was spiritual or corporeal. Sauvages , op. cit. (ref. 66), 289.

The young Sauvages had believed that a clear distinction line should be drawn between the medical and moral realms, according to whether the undesirable behaviour had organic cause or not. See Sauvages , op. cit. (ref. 66), 289, and Foucault , op. cit. (ref. 3), 267–8.

Rey Rosélyne , unpublished paper read at the Second European Congress on the History of Psychiatry and Mental Health Care, held at London in August 1993.

French Roger K. , “Sickness and the soul: Stahl, Hoffmann and Sauvages on pathology”, in Cunningham French (eds), The medical enlightenment of the eighteenth century (ref. 65), 88–110, p. 103.

Cullen William , Nosology, or a systematic arrangement of diseases (Edinburgh, 1800), 130; idem, The works of William Cullen, M.D. containing his physiology, nosology, and first lines of the practice of physic (2 vols, Edinburgh and London, 1827), ii, 509 and 518. See also Gaub Jerome , The institutions of medical pathology, transl. by Erskine Charles (Edinburgh, 1778), 271; Cullen William , “Lectures on the Comment on Gaubius' Pathology (1767)”, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, Western MS, 1927, 159.

Unlike Sauvages who insisted that nosological classification should be based only on the symptom of a disease, Cullen took its anatomical site into consideration. Sauvages , op. cit. (ref. 66), pp. ix–x; Cullen , Works (ref. 79), i, 424.

Cullen , Works (ref. 79), ii, 518.

Lawrence Christopher , “The nervous system and society in the Scottish Enlightenment”, in Barns Barry Shapin Steven (eds), Natural order: Historical studies of scientific culture (Beverly Hills, 1979), 19–40.

Cullen , Works (ref. 79), i, 131–2 and ii, 519.

Cullen , Works (ref. 79), ii, 524; “Lectures by Dr. William Cullen on the practice of physick, c. 1770”, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, Western MS, 1968, “Ordo IV Vesaniae”. James Gregory, his successor in the chair of the practice of physic, lectured that he knew the case of a madman in St Petersburg, who was cured by staying out at “59 degree below the freezing point”. Gregory James , “Lectures on the practice of physic, c. 1795”, WIHM, Western MS, 2606, 8–9.

“Lectures by Dr. William Cullen”, ibid . The somatic justification of psychological treatment had a long history. See, for instance, Burton Robert , op. cit. (ref. 24), Part II, 103, and Willis , Two discourses (ref. 31), 193–4 and 206.

Hume and Cullen were intellectual allies as well as close friends since Cullen supported Hume's application for the chair of logic at the University of Glasgow, formerly occupied by Adam Smith (1723–90) in 1751. See Lawrence Christopher , “Medicine as culture: Edinburgh and the Scottish Enlightenment”, University College London Ph.D. dissertation, 1984, 312–14.

Cullen , Works (ref. 79), ii, 510. See Hume , op. cit. (ref. 51), 98–106, 130–42, and 155–76. See also Hume David , An abstract of a book lately published; Entitled, a Treatise of human nature (London, 1740), in Hume , op. cit. (ref. 51), 649–55. Another example of Hume's influence on Cullen was the effect of the custom on sensation, which is discussed in Lawrence , op. cit. (ref. 86), 325–36 and 340–7.

Hume David , Enquiries concerning human understanding and concerning the principles of morals, ed. by Nidditch P. H. (Oxford, 1975), 45.

Cullen , Works (ref. 79), i, 44. See also the following: “[judgement] is nothing but [my emphasis] pursuing our ordinary train of associations … that constitute what is called a sensible man” (ibid.).

Ibid., 144.

As for the problem of virtue and propriety, see Phillipson Nicholas , “The Scottish Enlightenment”, in Porter Roy Teich Mikuláš (eds), Enlightenment in national context (Cambridge, 1981), 19–40. Cullen raised the issue of the subtle distinction between madness and moral failure, and Arnold wrote that madness is a severe form of moral folly, almost identifying them. See Cullen , Works (ref. 79), i, 145; Arnold , op. cit. (ref. 43), i, pp. viii, 54–77.

Cullen , Works (ref. 79), i, 145.

The individualistic understanding of madness seems to have existed since the Classical medicine. James Robert , A medicinal dictionary (London, 1743–45), art. “delirium”, cited the definition of delirium by Celsus which says that “when any thing is done by the patient contrary to custom, and without a cause, as when he talks much or little, contrary to his usual custome … [my emphasis]”, he is mad.

For his somatic etiology, see Cullen , Works (ref. 79), ii, 513, where he wrote “although [vesania] seems to be chiefly, and sometimes solely an affection of the mind … yet these affections of the mind must be dependent upon a certain state of our corporeal part”.

Ibid., i, 5–6. For a perceptive discussion of Cullen's move toward “functional dualism”, see Wright , “Metaphysics and physiology” (ref. 12), 292–301.

Lawrence , op. cit. (ref. 86), 325–36; Wright , “Metaphysics and physiology” (ref. 12), 300. Cullen was familiar with Lockean argument as well. See Cullen , Works (ref. 79), i, 35 and 49; Locke , Essay (ref. 37), 2.1.1–2 and 2.8.21.

Wood P. B. , “The natural history of man in the Scottish Enlightenment”, History of science, xxvii (1989), 89–123; Rendall Jane , The origins of the Scottish Enlightenment (London, 1978), 20; Duncan Andrew , “Lectures on the practice and theory of physic”, WIHM, Western MSS 2238–40, i, 386–9.

Gregory James , A conspectus or brief view of the theory of medicine (Edinburgh, 1823); idem, “Theory of medicine: Notes of lectures”, WIHM, Western MS 2597, 377. See his definition of insanity: “The mind is deranged, when one confounds the objects of memory, or imagination, with the perceptions of the external senses, and thus ascribes existence to things which never did nor do exist; or when one's judgment of things is perverted, and foreign from the common sense of mankind. But this seldom or never happens. A deranged person usually judges rationally, though from false premises” ( Gregory , Conspectus, 82). See also the Gregory-inspired third edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica, art. “delirium”.

Arnold , op. cit. (ref. 43), i, 84. As for the active aspect of reflection, see ibid., 51.

Ibid., 51–52.

Makittrick James Adair , A philosophical and medical sketch of the natural history of the human body and mind (Bath, 1787), 54–96 and 83.

Crichton Alexander , An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement (2 vols, London, 1798), i, pp. ix–x. For Crichton and Pinel, see the detailed study in Weiner , “Mind and body in the clinic” (ref. 2).

Crichton , op. cit. (ref. 102), p. xxvii; Pinel Philippe , A treatise on insanity, transl. by Davis D. D. (Sheffield, 1806), 135.

Battie , op. cit. (ref. 56), 3–4.

Ibid., 4.

Perry Charles , A treatise of diseases in general (2 vols, London, 1741), i, 53; Buchan William , Domestic medicine: Or the family physician (Edinburgh, 1769), 516. See also Trusler John , The physical friend: Pointing out the symptoms of every distemper incident to man (London, 1776), 51.

Weiner , “Mind and the body in the clinic” (ref. 2), 334.

For clinical observation of madness, see Weiner , “Mind and body in the clinic” (ref. 2). Haslam John , Illustrations of madness: Exhibiting a singular case of insanity… (London, 1810; facsimile reprint, with introduction by Roy Porter, London, 1989); Perfect William , Annals of insanity (London, 1809; facsimile reprint, New York, 1976).

Parry-Jones , op. cit. (ref. 6); Ackerknecht , op. cit. (ref. 5).

Hunter Macalpine , op. cit. (ref. 45), 279.

Loudon Irvine , Medical care and the general practitioner 1750–1850 (Oxford, 1986); MacAlpine Ida Hunter Richard , George III and the mad-business (London, 1969); Porter , op. cit. (ref. 2), 169–228.

Porter , op. cit. (ref. 2), 228.

Scull , “The domestication of madness” (ref. 8).

The best example of contrasting attitude in the same author is that of Nicholas Robinson, A new system of spleen, vapours, and hypochondriack melancholy (London, 1729), 33–40 and 241–3.

Wiener Martin J. , Reconstructing the criminal: Culture, law, and policy in England, 1830–1914 (Cambridge, 1990), 26–28; Browne Janet , “Darwin and the face of madness”, in Bynum (eds), The anatomy of madness (ref. 32), i, 152–65.

The place of the passions and emotions in the history of psychiatry remains to be written. For a general overview, see Berrios G. E. , “The psychopathology of affectivity: Conceptual and historical aspects”, Psychological medicine, xv (1985), 745–58; Hilgard Ernest R. , “The trilogy of mind: Cognition, affection, and conation”, Journal of the history of behavioral sciences, xvi (1980), 107–17. For the eighteenth century, see Weiner , “Mind and body in clinic” (ref. 2).

Bynum , op. cit. (ref. 11); Scull , op. cit. (ref. 1), 175–231.

Porter , op. cit. (ref. 2), 205.

Goldstein , Console and classify (ref. 1), 64–119. For Pinel's fundamentally anti-anatomical viewpoint, see Brown Edward M. , “French psychiatry's initial reception of Bayle's discovery of general paresis of the insane”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, lxviii (1994), 235–53.

Foucault Michel , Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison , transl. by Sheridan Alan (Harmondsworth, 1979); Schaffer Simon , “States of mind: Enlightenment and natural philosophy”, in Rousseau (ed.), The languages of psyche (ref. 3), 233–90.