The Discourse of Race and the Medicalization of Public and Private Space in Modern China (1895–1949)

See Dikötter Frank , The discourse of race in modern China (London and Stanford, 1991).

Crossley Pamela Kyle , “The Qianlong retrospect on the Chinese-martial (hanjun) banners”, Late Imperial China , 1989, no. 1, 63–107; see also her incisive “Thinking about ethnicity in early modern China”, Late Imperial China, 1990, no. 1, 1–35, and her Orphan warriors: Three Manchu generations and the end of the Qing world (Princeton, 1990).

Junwu Ma , Wuzhong yuanshi (C. R.Darwin, The origin of species) (Shanghai, 1919). See also Freeman R. B. , “Darwin in Chinese”, Archives of natural history , 1986, no. 1, 19–24, and Whitehead P. J. P. , “Darwin in Chinese: Some additions”, Archives of natural history, 1988, no. 1, 61–62.

Changyanbao (The Verax), 1898, nos. 1–7 (Taipei, repr. 1967).

See Zhijun Tang , “Zhang Taiyan de shehuixue” (“Zhang Binglin's study of sociology”) in Nianchi Zhang (ed.), Zhang Taiyan shengping yu xueshu (The life and work of Zhang Binglin) (Peking, 1988), 532–42.

Fu Yan , Qunxue siyan (H. Spencer, A study of sociology) (Peking, 1902).

Junwu Ma , Shehuixue yinlun (A guide to sociology) (Shanghai, 1903).

Jianchang Wu , Shehuixue tigang (An outline of sociology) (Shanghai, 1903).

On the construct of race and group formation, see Dikötter Frank , “Group definition and the idea of ‘race’ in modern China (1793–1949)”, Ethnic and racial studies, 1990, no. 3, 421–32.

Fu Yan , Yan Fu shiwen xuan (Selected poems and writings of Yan Fu) (Peking, 1959), 15.

Collective neurosis about degeneration was of course widespread in Europe too; see Pick Daniel , Faces of degeneration: A European disorder, c. 1848 – c. 1918 (Cambridge, 1989).

Junjun Zhang , Zhongguo minzu zhi gaizao (The reform of the Chinese race) (Shanghai, 1935), 19. See also his Zhongguo minzu zhi gaizao, xubian (Continuation to the reform of the Chinese race) (Shanghai, 1936).

Boqiang Liang , “Yixueshang Zhongguo minzu zhi yanjiu” (“Medical research on the Chinese race”), Dongfang zazhi (Eastern miscellanea), 1926, no. 13, 87–100.

On the emergence of the public sphere in modern China and a discussion of Jürgen Habermas's concept of Öffentlichkeit, see Rowe's William T. excellent “The public sphere in modern China”, Modern China, 1990, no. 3, 309–29.

Guangdan Pan , Zhongguo zhi jiating wenti (Problems of the Chinese family) (Shanghai, 1928), 2.

Jiayue Yi , Jiating wenti (Problems of the family) (Shanghai, 1920), 149.

Qichao Liang , “Xin shixue” (“New historiography”), Yinbingshi wenji (Collected writings of Liang Qichao) (Shanghai, 1941), 4, 9:11; see also another important article entitled “Lun minzu jingzheng zhi dashi” (“About the general trend of racial struggles”), Yinbingshi , 4, 10:10–35.

See Dikötter Frank , “Eugenics in Republican China”, Republican China, 1989, no. 1, 1–17.

For instance Changheng Chen Jianren Zhou , Jinhualun yu shanzhongxue (Evolution and eugenics) (Shanghai, 1923), Xiong Liu , Yichuan yu yousheng (Heredity and eugenics) (Shanghai, 1924), Guangdan Pan , Youshengxue (Eugenics) (Shanghai, 1933), Rucheng Hua , Youshengxue ABC (ABC of eugenics) (Shanghai, 1929), and Xiaoqiu Qian , Renzhong gailiangxue gailun (Introduction to the science of race improvement) (Shanghai, 1932).

Zhenzi Wu , “Women wei shenme yao yanjiu youshengxue” (“Why we should study eugenics”), Xuesheng zazhi (The student's magazine), 1928, no. 9, 31–36.

For instance Chonggan Ma , Jiehun zhidao (Marriage guide) (Shanghai, 1931), 11–12.

Jixiu Zhang , Funü zhuance (Special handbook for women) (Shanghai, 1937), 52–61.

Zizhi Jin , Minzu weisheng (Racial hygiene) (Shanghai, 1930).

“Renzhong gailiang xiansheng jiang you kexue yinghai chuxian” (“First signs of race improvement: Imminent appearance of scientific babies”), Xianggang gongshang, 18 January 1935.

Duhe Yan , “Youshenglü” (“Eugenic laws”), Xinwenbao, 12 May 1935.

“Minzu gaizao wenti” (“The problem of race reform”), Zhongyang ribao, 20 August 1935.

“Yichuan yu yousheng” (“Heredity and eugenics”), Shishi xinbao, 11 January 1935.

“Ying Sanger Furen” (“Welcoming Miss Sanger”), Funü zazhi (The ladies' journal), 1922, no. 6, 2.

For instance Jiazhao Song , Taijiao (Prenatal education) (Shanghai, 1914), 1, and Song Mingzhi, ibid., 5.

Sexology, heredity, genetics and other related fields will be investigated in my forthcoming The yolk and the ticks: Birth, sex and death in modern China (1895–1949), which deals in detail with the interaction of the modern biological paradigm with indigenous systems of thought.

See Birkin Laurence , Consuming desire: Sexual science and the emergence of a culture of abundance, 1871–1914 (Ithaca, 1988).

Lien-Teh Wu , “The prevention of sexual diseases”, The China critic, 16 April 1931, 367.

Jianren Zhou , “Shanzhongxue de lilun yu shishi” (“Eugenics and its implementation”), Dongfang zazhi (Eastern miscellanea), 1921, no. 2, 63–64.

Ch'en Jerome , China and the West (London, 1979), 388.

Yousheng yuekan (Eugenics monthy), 1932, no. 2, 5.

“Duiyu shengzi xianzhi” (“About birth-control”), Shuntian shibao, nos. 5838–47 (April-May 1920).

Jingsheng Zhang , Xingshi (Sex histories) (Shanghai, 1926).

Magnus Hirschfeld, a German sexologist, observed many neurotic symptoms such as the fear of impotency or the fear of shrinkage during his stay in China in the 1930s. Many foreign doctors noticed the abundance of charlatans in Republican China. See my forthcoming The yolk and the ticks.

Dikötter Frank , “Birth-control and eugenics in Republican China”, paper presented at the Contemporary China Institute, London, 11 December 1990.

Da Chen , Zhongguo renkou (Population in modern China) (Shanghai, 1946).