Presocratic Philosophy and Hippocratic Medicine

W.S. Hett's translation (with slight modification), Loeb edn (Cambridge, Mass., 1957). The same observation is made by Aristotle at De sensu 436a18ff. Even if Aristotle is referring to the contemporary state of affairs and is not expressly referring to an earlier period, his remarks would apply a fortiori to the earlier period.

Burnet John , Early Greek philosophy (London, 1930), 201, n.4.

For detailed evidence of this practice see Emma and Edelstein Ludwig , Asclepius: A collection and interpretation of the testimonies (2 vols, Baltimore, 1945).

Evidence of Egyptian medical practice may be found in the Edwin Smith surgical papyrus and the Ebers and Hearst papyri. However, it has been claimed that the former is in the true sense scientific (see, for example, Breasted J.H. , The Edwin Smith surgical papyrus (Chicago, 1930), i, 14). Similarly, Henry Sigerist finds in the Ebers papyrus a rational attitude anticipating “without recourse to the gods” the “views and methods of the Presocratic philosophers of Greece” (A history of medicine, i: Primitive and archaic medicine (New York, 1951), 355). But as magic is elsewhere prevalent in the Ebers papyrus and Breasted's claim is a false impression deriving its plausibility from the fact that the afflictions dealt with in the Edwin Smith are the result of observable physical causes and thus had little or no connection with the malignant demons of disease, the standpoint of both these authors should be rejected.

Decorum, Chap. 6, however (ix.235L. — where the text is corrupt) seems to suggest that though physicians are the agents, the gods are the real cause of cures in medicine and surgery, and the author of Regimen, IV (Chaps. 89 (vi.652L.) and 90 (vi.656L.)) prescribes prayers as a third remedy after exercise and diet. Mansfeld J. (“Theoretical and empirical attitudes in early Greek medicine”, Hippocratica (Paris, 1980), 371–91, p.378) believes that the resort to prayer in these passages represents only an apparent exception to the normal Hippocratic outlook and that the attitude of our author towards such matters is (otherwise) “an enlightened and critical one”. He cites Chap. 87 (vi.642L.) in support of this contention but the attitude manifested here does not seem to me to be in any way inconsistent with that revealed in Chaps. 89 and 90. R. Joly, we may note, with equal lack of conviction, is of the opinion that the author has transposed these prayers (complaisamment) from his source (Hippocrate: Du régime, Budé edition, vi, Pt i (Paris, 1967), ad loc. and Recherches sur le traité pseudo-hippocratique Du régime (Paris/Liège, 1960), 171).

Euripides, it may be noted, in a famous fragment (Frag. 910 Nauck; D.K.59A30), speaks of the happiness of the man who devotes his life to the study of “the ageless order of undying nature, whence it was composed and in what way”.

Aëtius records that Pythagoras himself was the first to employ this term (I, 3, 8; D.K.58B15).

There is a good discussion of this background in Lloyd G.E.R. , Magic, reason and experience (Cambridge, 1979), 264–7.

Theaetetus, 155d.

Metaphysics, 982b12ff.

See, for example, Iliad, XIII, 43.

Metaphysics, 983b17ff. (D.K.11A12).

See Aristotle, De caelo, 294a28ff. (D.K.11A14); Metaphysics, 983b17ff. (D.K.11A12) and Seneca , Naturales quaestiones. III, 14 (D.K.11A15).

See Aristotle, Meteorologica, 365b6ff. (D.K.13A21).

See Aëtius, iii, 3, 1–2 (D.K.12A23 and 13A17).

According to Sextus, Democritus held that it was in part through a mistaken inference from terrifying natural phenomena such as thunder, lightning and eclipses that men came to believe in the gods. Adversus mathematicos, IX, 24 (D.K.68A75).

Jaeger Werner , Paideia: The ideals of Greek culture, transl. by Highet G. (3 vols, Oxford, 1939–49), iii, Book 4, p.4.

The fact that Halicarnassus, Herodotus's birthplace, was also a Dorian foundation should not be overlooked in this connection. The development of Greek historiography affords a striking parallel to that of rational medicine in Greece in that both fields of enquiry originated in Dorian settlements, both are expounded in Ionic and both owe their impetus to Ionian Natural Philosophy.

Physics, 203b13ff. (D.K.12B3 and 12A15).

Refutationes omnium haeresium, I, 6, 1 (D.K.12B2 and A11).

Aëtius, I, 7, 13 and Cicero , De natura deorum, I, 10,26 (D.K.113A10). The dictum “all things are full of gods”, cautiously attributed to Thales by Aristotle (De anima, 411a7ff.;D.K.11A22), should also be considered within the present context. The interpretation of this assertion is highly controversial, but it could very well entail both that Thales, like his Milesian successors, considered his own first principle, water, to be divine and that he regarded all natural phenomena also as divine. Aristotle, it should be noted, connects this dictum with the belief of other thinkers that “soul is mingled in the whole” and, earlier in the De anima (405a19ff.;D.K.11A22), he tells us that Thales seems to have identified soul and life with the cause of motion if he said that the Magnesian stone possesses soul because it makes iron move.

Hippolytus , Refutationes omnium haeresium, I, 7, 1 (D.K.13A7) and Augustine , De civitate dei, VIII, 2 (D.K.13A10).

Aëtius, I, 3, 20 (D.K.31B6).

Fragment 21.12.

Fragments 21.12 and 23.8.

See Aristotle , De generatione et corruptione, 333b21ff. (D.K.31A40) and Philoponus , In de generatione et corruptione, 265.11 Vitelli.

See Lloyd , Magic, reason and experience (ref. 8), 25.

Clarke Edwin , “Apoplexy in the Hippocratic writings”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xxxvii (1963), 301–14, p.303.

There is a discussion and partial translation of this text by H. King in “Bound to bleed: Artemis and Greek women”, Chap. 18 in Images of women in Antiquity, ed. by Cameron A. and Kuhrt A. (Beckenham, 1983), 109–41.

See Aëtius, I, 3, 4 (D.K.13B2) and Longrigg J. , “A note on Anaximenes fragment 2”, Phronesis, ix (1964), 1–4.

See, for example, Clement , Stromateis, VI, 16 (D.K.22B36). Stobaeus , Florilegium, III, 5, 7, (D.K.22B117) and ibid., III, 5, 8 (D.K.22B118).

Burnet , Early Greek philosophy (ref. 2), 201, n.4.

A few fragments have survived, see Diels/Kranz , Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, 8th edn (Berlin, 1956), i, 214ff.

Heidel W.A. , Hippocratic medicine (New York, 1941), 42.

In addition to his medical and physiological interests there is evidence that he was interested in astronomy (Aëtius, II, 16, 2–3; II, 22, 4 and 29, 3; D.K.24A4) and the nature of the soul ( Aristotle , De anima, 405a29 and Aëtius, IV, 2, 2;D.K.24A12).

See Longrigg J. , “Philosophy and medicine: Some early interactions”, Harvard studies in classical philology, lxvii (1963), 147–75, Appendix A 167–9.

Simplicius , Physics, 24, 13 (D.K.12B1).

See, for example, Origen , c.Celsum, VI, 42 (D.K.22B80).

See Simplicius , Physics, 32, 3 (D.K.31B98); Aëtius, V.22, 1 (D.K.31A78); and Theophrastus , De sensibus, 10–11 (D.K.31A86).

See Anonymus Londinensis, XX, 25.

See Timaeus, 81e6ff.

As Jaeger has pointed out, medicine exercised later another important influence upon ethics when Aristotle employed medicine as his model for the conduct of ethical enquiry (see Jaeger W. , “Aristotle's use of medicine as a model of method in his ethics”, Journal of Hellenic studies, lxxvii (1957), 54–61).

Diogenes Laërtius, VIII, 83 (D.K.24B1). The text of this fragment is highly controversial and almost certainly corrupt. I follow J. Wachtler's suggestion here (De Alcmaeone Crotoniata (Diss., Leipzig, 1896), 34–38). See app. crit. to Diels/Kranz for other suggestions. The contrast, however, between divine and human knowledge is not affected.

For Xenophanes, however, see below.

Guthrie W.K.C. , A history of Greek philosophy, i (Cambridge, 1962), 344.

In addition to these enquiries later physicists share his interest in such topics as the nature of the semen, the reason for the sterility of mules, the cause of sleep and the mode of nourishment of the embyro.

See Fragment 112.

Wellmann M. , Fragmentsammlung der griechischen Ärzte, i: Die Fragmente der Sikelischen Ärzte (Berlin, 1901), 68ff.

Burnet , Early Greek philosophy (ref. 2), 200.

For Philistion's views and the influence of Empedocles upon them see especially Wellman M. , op. cit. (ref. 48), 69ff.

See Fragments 84, 96, and 98; Aëtius, V,22, 1 (D.K.31A78); Theophrastus , De sensibus, and 10–11 (D.K.31A86).

Theophrastus , De sensibus, 43 (D.K.64A19).

Galen tells us that while almost all the doctors agreed that the male was not only formed before the female but was also the first to move, Rufus said that Diogenes alone disagreed with this ( Galen , In Hippocratis Epidemiarum libros vi, commentarius ii (xvii A. 1006, 8 Kühn; D.K.64B9). This passage is not conclusive evidence in itself that Diogenes was a doctor. Rufus's assertion is inconsistent with Censorinus's statement at De die natali, 9, 2 (D.K.64A26). We learn from Theophrastus (De sensibus, 43; D.K.64A19) and from the anonymous author of a medical treatise ([Galen], De humoribus, xix.495K.;D.K.64A29a) that Diogenes believed in the possibility of diagnosis by the tongue and the colour of the patient. Again, the Diogenes cited by Galen as the author of a medical treatise on diseases, their causes and remedies, may have been the Apolloniate (On medical experience, XXII, 3, translated from the Arabic by R. Walzer).

See Theophrastus , De sensibus, 43 (D.K.64A19).

The date of Ancient medicine has aroused considerable controversy and the treatise has been assigned to periods ranging from as early as around the middle of the fifth century to as late as the period between the late Plato and Aristotle. A.J. Festugière argued for a date between 440 and 420 b.c. (Hippocrate: L'Ancienne médicine (Paris, 1948), n.74, pp.62ff., and the present writer has pressed for a slightly earlier date around the middle of the fifth century (op. cit. (ref. 36), and “[Hippocrates] Ancient medicine and its intellectual context”, in Formes de pensée dans la Collection Hippocratique: Actes du IV' Colloque International Hippocratique, ed. by Lasserre F. and Mudry P. (Geneva, 1983), 249-56). The later dating advocated by Diller H. (“Hippokratische Medizin und attische Philosophie”, Hermes, lxxx (1952), 385–409) was attacked by J.H. Kühn (System- und Methodenprobleme im Corpus Hippocraticum, Hermes Einzelschriften, xi (1956)) and by Heinimann F. , “Eine vorplatonische Theorie der , Museum heleticum, xviii (1961), 105–30, p.112, n.32. G.E.R. Lloyd, however, takes Diller's points sufficiently seriously to insist that a fourth century date is far more likely than a fifth century one and suggests that the author of Ancient medicine is mounting his attack specifically against the Pythagorean Philolaus whom, he believes, could be thought of as a pivotal figure in the relationship between philosophy and medicine (“Who is attacked in On ancient medicine?”, Phronesis, viii (1963), 108–26). [Diller, it may be noted, subsequently retracted his attribution of so late a date for Ancient medicine in “Das Selbstverständnis der Griechischen Medizin in der Zeit der Hippokrates”, La collection hippocratique et son rôle dans l'histoire de la médecine: Colloque de Strasbourg (Leiden, 1975), 77–93.] While our evidence certainly reveals some affinities between Philolaus's biological theory (cf. Anonymus Londinensis, XVIII, 8; D.K.44A27) and Pythagorean cosmogony generally (cf. e.g. Aristotle , Physics, 213b22ff. and Stobaeus , Eclogae, 1, 18, lc; D.K. 58B30), it is not easy to determine which influenced which. Moreover, if Lloyd is identifying Philolaus as the prime object of Ancient medicine's polemic, is it not odd that the medical author should, in that case, have made Empedocles the representative of this objectionable influence of philosophy and not Philolaus? Pace Lloyd there does not seem to be sufficient evidence to sustain the ascription of a pivotal role to Philolaus and place him in the same rank with Empedocles and Diogenes as influential figures in the history of early Greek medicine.

De natura hominis, I (vi.34L. and D.K.30A6).

Plutarch , Pericles, 26ff. (D.K.30A3).

Diogenes Laërtius, IX, 24 (D.K.10A1).

See, for example, Simplicius , Physics, 23, 22 (D.K.38A4).

Simplicius , Physics, 151, 28ff. (D.K.64B2–7).

His views are parodied in the Clouds of Aristophanes (227ff.) produced in 423 b.c. (see, too, Frogs, 892–4 and Euripides , Troades, 884–8.

Jouanna Jacques , “Rapports entre Mélissos de Samos et Diogène d'Apollonie à la lumière du traité hippocratique De natura hominis”, Revue des études anciennes, lxvii (1965), 306–23.

ibid., 309.

For these see further Jouanna , op. cit., 310.

Aëtius, IV, 9, 15 and 28 (D.K.31A95).

Diller H. , “Die philosophiegeschichtliche Stellung des Diogenes von Apollonia”, Hermes, lxxvi (1941), 359–81, p.366.

Jouanna , op. cit. (ref. 62), 321ff.

Jouanna With , ibid., 322.

De natura hominis, Chap. 1.

ibid., Chap. 4.

For the influence of Empedocles upon De natura hominis see Fredrich C.J. , Hippokratische Untersuchungen (Berlin, 1899), 28–32; Diepgen P. , Geschichte der Medizin, i (Berlin, 1949), 81ff., and the editions of O. Villaret (Hippocratis De natura hominis liber ad codicum fidem recensitus (Diss., Göttingen and Berlin, 1911), 65ff., and Jouanna J. (Hippocrate: La nature de l'homme (Berlin, 1975), 43ff.

See p.13 above.

Chaps. 7ff.

See Schöner E. , Das Viererschema in der antiken Humoralpathologie (Wiesbaden, 1964), 100.

As does Fredrich , Untersuchungen (ref. 71), 45ff.

See Lonie I.M. , The Hippocratic treatises “On generation”, “On the nature of the child” and “Diseases iv” (Berlin/New York, 1981), 60.

The influence of Diogenes may also be detected in the account of the venous system outlined in Sacred diseases, Chap. 6. Aristotle preserves Diogenes's own account (Historia animalium, 511b30ff.; D.K.64B6) and there are close similarities between them.

For these philosophical influences see especially Joly , Recherches sur le traité pseudo-hippocratique Du régime (ref. 5), 23ff., 89 and 205; Kucharski P. , “Anaxagore et les idées biologiques de son siècle”, Revue philosophique, cliv (1964), 137–66, pp. 153–61, and Peck A.L. , “Anaxagoras and the parts”, Classical quarterly, xx (1926), 57–71, p.69.

On the relationship between Empedocles and Diogenes see my article “A seminal ‘debate’ in the fifth century b.c.?”, in Aristotle on nature and living things, ed. by Gotthelf A. (Pittsburgh, 1985), 277–87, pp.279ff.

Jaeger has adduced persuasive reasons for believing that Aristotle derived his theory of pneuma with other related doctrines from the (so-called) Sicilian school of physicians ( Jaeger W.W. , “Das Pneuma im Lykeion”, Hermes, xlviii (1913), 29–74, esp. pp. 51–55). Other scholars, however, have identified Diogenes as the originator of this doctrine (see especially Pohlenz M. , Hippokrates (Berlin, 1938), 39ff. and Lesky E. , Die Zeugungs- und Vererbungslehren der Antike (Wiesbaden, 1951), 121ff.). If we are correct in our assessment (ref. 79) that Diogenes was much influenced by Empedoclean biology, then these apparently conflicting standpoints are easily reconciled. For the development of the doctrine of the pneuma generally see especially Verbeke G. , L'évolution de la doctrine du pneuma (Paris/Louvain, 1945).

The concept of innate heat seems to have been developed by Empedocles, who gave a wider physiological significance to Parmenides's correlation of cold with death and warmth with life (see Theophrastus , De sensibus, 3; D.K.28A46). For Empedocles's use of this concept see especially Aëtius, IV,22, 1 (D.K.31A74); V, 27, 1 (D.K.31A77); V, 24,2 and V,25,4 (D.K.31A85). This theory became widely prevalent among Presocratic philosophers immediately subsequent to Empedocles (see, for example, Philolaus (Anonymus Londinensis, XVIII,8; D.K.44A27), Hippon ( Aristotle , De anima, 405b24ff. and Philoponus , De anima, 92,2; D.K.38A10) and Diogenes (Aëtius, V,15.4; D.K.64A28) and also throughout the Hippocratic Corpus (see, for example, De natura hominis, 12; De victu, 2, 60–62; De carne, 2ff. and 6; De corde, 6). It is adopted by Philistion ( Galen , De usu respirationis, I,1; iv.471K), by Plato (Timaeus, 78b-79c) and by Aristotle (see, for example, De partibus animalium, 650a3ff.; De anima, 416b28ff.; De iuv., 470a19ff.; De generatione animalium, 732b31ff. and 733a34ff.). See, generally, Solmsen F. , “The vital heat, the inborn pneuma and the aether”, Journal of Hellenic studies, lxxvii (1957), 119–23.

The belief that the purpose of respiration was to cool the innate heat also seems to have originated as part of the ‘Sicilian tradition’ in Greek medicine and derived thence by Aristotle (for the latter's adoption of this concept see, for example, De partibus animalium, 668b34ff.; De respiratione, 475b17ff.). At any rate, it is adopted by Plato in the Timaeus (70d, 78e and 79e), who probably derived it himself from Philistion ( Galen , De usu respirationis, I,1; iv.471K). Although Aristotle has criticized Empedocles for not having explained the purpose of respiration (De respiratione, 473a15ff.), this criticism is of doubtful validity. It seems likely that Philistion derived from Empedocles not only his four-element theory and the doctrine of innate heat but also his views of the purpose of respiration. Several Presocratic philosophers immediately subsequent to Empedocles, who have clearly taken into account certain of the latter's biological theories, also subscribe to the view that respiration serves to moderate the innate heat (viz Philolaus, Hippon and Diogenes: For references see ref. 81 above). While it remains a possibility that this theory represents a later development upon the basis of Empedoclean biology, it should be borne in mind that these Presocratic thinkers are all influenced by Empedocles and are not all of them obviously interrelated (see my article “Empedocles's fiery fish”, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, xxviii (1965), 314–15).

This conception that the blood serves as the agent of nutrition is rightly described by Solmsen F. (“Tissues and the soul”, Philosophical review, lix (1950), 435–68, p. 454) as “one of the fundamental discoveries of ancient physiology”. Solmsen, however, believes that this theory was first formulated “by fourth century physicians who kept up the tradition of Empedocles” (ibid., 455–6) although “Empedocles is not likely to have known it” (ibid., 454). But Solmsen has overlooked evidence proving that Diogenes subscribed to this theory (see Aristotle , Historia animalium, 512b9ff. (D.K.64B6)) and sufficient evidence has survived to suggest that it is highly likely that Empedocles believed that the blood served as the agent of nutrition (see, especially, Simplicius, In physicis, 371.33 (D.K.31B61) and Aristotle , De generatione animalium, 777a7ff. (D.K.31B68)) and thus was ultimately responsible for the theory of digestion/nutrition which became the accepted doctrine in Europe until the seventeenth century a.d. (see my “A seminal ‘debate’ in the fifth century b.c.?” (ref. 79), 285, n.21).

This conception of the semen as a form of surplus nutriment became the dominant one in the ancient world and was adopted, for example, by Aristotle, the Alexandrians, Herophilus and Erasistratus, the Stoics and Galen. It seems probable that this belief, too had its origin in the fifth century and should be traced back via Diogenes to Empedocles (see my “A seminal ‘debate’ …”, 280).

Celsus , De mediana, Proem, Chap. 8.

Heidel , Hippocratic medicine (ref. 34), 18.

With Mansfeld , op. cit. (ref. 5), who observes “it is the enlightened theoretical attitude which makes the enlightened empirical attitude possible” (p. 381).

See, for example, Plato , Apology, 18bff. and Aristophanes , Clouds, 187ff.

Festugière A.J. , Hippocrate: L'Ancienne médicine (Paris, 1948), 43.

See Guthrie who is here paraphrasing Cornford (A history of Greek philosophy (ref. 45), 344).

Sextus, incidentally, is only one of several authors to record this fragment. He himself quotes these lines in whole or part no less than four times (Adversus mathematicos, VII, 49 and 110; VIII, 326; Pyrrhoniae hypotyposes, II, 18). They are also quoted by Plutarch, Galen, Proclus, Diogenes Laërtius, Epiphanius and Origen. For full references see Karsten S. , Xenophanes Colophonii carminum reliquiae (Amsterdam, 1830). H. Fränkel analyses these sources in his article “Xenophanesstudien i and ii”, Hermes, lx (1925), 174–92.

See Sextus , Adversus mathematicos, VII, 49.

ibid., 110.

See Reinhardt K. , Parmenides und die Geschichte der griechischen Philosophie (Bonn, 1916), 118, and Fränkel , op. cit. (ref. 91), 190.

As J. Barnes persuasively suggests (The Presocratic philosophers, rev. edn (London, 1982), 138).

Ibid., 139. These affinities between Xenophanes, Alcmaeon and Ancient medicine were earlier pointed out by Hermann Fränkel in Part ii of his “Xenophanesstudien” (ref. 91) and in “Xenophanes's empiricism and his critique of knowledge (B34), in The Presocratics, ed. by Mourelatos A.P.D. (New York, 1974), 118–31).

Prometheus bound, 442–68 and 478–506.

Antigone, 332–71.

Supplices, 201–13.

Sextus , Adversus mathematicos, IX, 54 (D.K.88B25).

Guthrie W.K.C. , A history of Greek philosophy, iii (Cambridge, 1969), 62.

Cornford F.M. , Principium sapientiae (Cambridge, 1952), 42. “First formulated in medicine by Alcmaeon” might be nearer the truth!.

1839–61 Littré E. , Oeuvres complètes d'Hippocrate (10 vols, Paris).

1865 Daremberg C. V. , La médecine dans Homère (Paris).

1888 Weygoldt G. P. , “Zu Diogenes von Apollonia”, Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie, i, 161–71.

1896 Wachtier J. , De Alcmaeone Crotoniata (Diss., Leipzig).

1899 Fredrich C. J. , Hippokratische Untersuchungen (Berlin).

1901 Blass F. , “Die Ps.-Hippokratische Schrift und der Anonymus Londinensis”, Hermes, xxxvi, 405–10.

1901 Wellmann M. , Fragmentsammlung der griechischen Ärzte, i: Die Fragmente der Sikelischen Ärzte (Berlin).

1901 von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff U. , “Die hippokratische Schrift , Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2–23.

1906 Heidel W. A. , “Qualitative change in Presocratic philosophy”, Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie, xix, 333–79.

1909 Lovejoy A. O. , “The meaning of in the Greek physiologers”, Philosophical review, xviii, 369–83.

1909 Nelson A. H. , Die hippokratische Schrift : Text und Studien (Diss., Uppsala).

1910 Gomperz T. , Die Apologie der Heilkunst (2nd edn, Leipzig).

1910 Heidel W. A. , “: A study of the conception of nature among the Presocratics”, Proceedings of the American Academy of arts and sciences, xlv, 77–133.

1911 Villaret O. , Hippocratis De natura hominis liber ad codicum fidem recensitus (Diss., Göttingen and Berlin).

1912 Gillespie C. M. , “The use of and in Hippocrates”, Classical quarterly, vi, 179–203.

1913 Jaeger W. W. , “Das Pneuma im Lykeion”, Hermes, xlviii, 29–74 (reprinted in his Scripta minora (Rome, 1960), 57–102).

1914 Keus A. , Über philosophische Begriffe und Theorien in den hippokratischen Schriften (Diss., Bonn-Köln).

1914 Willerding G. K. F. , Studio Hippocratica (Diss., Göttingen).

1920 Wright J. , “The origin of Hippocratic theory in some of the science of nature philosophers”, Scientific monthly, xi, 127–40.

1921 Singer C. , Studies in the history and method of science (Oxford).

1922 Singer C. , Greek biology and Greek medicine (Oxford).

1923–31 Jones W. H. S. , Hippocrates (Loeb edn, 4 vols, London and Cambridge, Mass.).

1923 Moon R. O. , Hippocrates and his successors in relation to the philosophy of their time (Fitzpatrick Lectures, London, 1922).

1925 Baumann E. D. , “Die Heilige Krankheit”, Janus, xxix, 7–32.

1925 Frankel H. , “Xenophanesstudien i and ii”, Hermes, lx, 174–92 (reprinted in Wege und Formen fruhgriechischen Denkens (Munich, 1960), 335–49).

1925 Theiler W. , Zur Geschichte der teleologischen Naturbetrachtung bis auf Aristoteles (Zürich and Leipzig).

1926 Jacoby F. , “Griechische Geschichtsschreibung”, Die Antike, ii, 1–29 (reprinted in Abhandlungen zur griechischen Geschichtsschreibung, ed. by Bloch H. (Leiden, 1956), 73–99).

1926 Peck A. L. , “Anaxagoras and the parts”, Classical quarterly, xx, 57–71.

1929 Brock A. J. , Greek medicine (London).

1929 Senn G. , “Über Herkunft und Stil der Beschreibungen von Experimenten im Corpus Hippocraticum”, Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin, xxii, 217–89.

1929 Wellmann M. , “Spuren Demokrits von Abdera im Corpus Hippocraticum”, Archeion, xi, 297–330.

1929 Wellmann M. , “Die Schrift des Corpus Hippocraticum”, Sudhoffs Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin, xxii, 290–312.

1930 Burnet J. , Early Greek philosophy, 4th edn (London).

1930 Deichgräber K. , Die griechische Empirikerschule: Sammlung und Darstellung der Lehre (Berlin).

1930 Regenbogen O. , “Eine Forschungsmethode antiker Naturwissenschaft”, Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der Mathematik, Astronomie und Physik, B, i, 2 (1930; Berlin, 1931), 131–82 (reprinted in his Kleine Schriften (Munich, 1961), 141–94).

1930 Wellman M. , “Die pseudohippokratische Schrift ”, Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin, xxiii, 299–305.

1931 Edelstein L. , und die Sammlung der hippokratischen Schriften (Berlin).

1931 Herzog R. , Die Wunderheilungen von Epidauros (Philologus Supplementum, xxii/3; Leipzig).

1932 Diller H. , “”, Hermes, lxvii, 14–42 (reprinted in his Kleine Schriften zur antiken Literatur (Munich, 1971), 119–43).

1933 Deichgräber K. , “Zu Hippokrates' ”, Hermes, lxviii, 356–8.

1933 Deichgräber K. , Die Epidemien und das Corpus Hippocraticum (Abhandlungen der preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Jahrgang 33, Phil. Hist. Kl.; Berlin).

1933 Heidel W. A. , The heroic age of science (Baltimore).

1933 Temkin O. , “Views on epilepsy in the Hippocratic period”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, i, 41–44.

1934 Baumann E. D. , “Du médecin philosophe d'Hippocrate”, Janus, xxxviii, 25–32.

1934 Diller H. , Wanderarzt und Aitiologie: Studien zur hippokratischen schrift (Leipzig).

1935 Deichgräber K. Schubring K. , and Schwyzer E , Über Entstehung und Aufbau des menschlichen Körpers (Leipzig and Berlin).

1935 Edelstein L. , “Hippokrates”, Pauly-Wissowa , Real-encyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, Nachträge, vi (Stuttgart), 1290–1345.

1936 Müri W. , “ Kap ix”, Hermes, lxxi, 467–9.

1937 Edelstein L. , “Greek medicine in its relation to religion and magic”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, v, 201–46.

1938 Pohlenz M. , Hippokrates und die Begründung der wissenschaftlichen Medizin (Berlin).

1939 Deichgräber K. , “Die Stellung des griechischen Ärztes zur Natur”, Die Antike, xv, 116–37.

1939 Edelstein L. , “The genuine works of Hippocrates”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, vii, 236–48.

1939–45 Jaeger W. , Paideia: The ideals of Greek culture, transl. by Highet G. (3 vols, Oxford).

1939 Stella L. A. , “L'Importanza di Alcmeone nella storia del pensiero greco”, Memorie della Reale Accademia Nazionali dei Lincei, s.6, viii, 233–87.

1940 Schumacher J. , Antike Medizin: Die Naturphilosophischen Grundlagen der Medizin in der griechischen Antike (Berlin).

1941 Cornford F. M. , “Emendations in ”, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society, 178, 23.

1941 Diller H. , “Die philosophiegesehichtliche Stellung des Diogenes von Apollonia”, Hermes, lxxvi, 359–81 (reprinted in his Kleine Schriften zur antiken Literatur (Munich, 1971), 162–86).

1941 Heidel W. A. , Hippocratic medicine, its spirit and method (New York).

1941 Jones W. H. S. , “On the interpretation of ”, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society, 178, 22–23.

1942 Edelstein L. , review of L. A. Stella, “L'Importanza di Alcmeone”, (1939) in American journal of philology, lxiii, 371–3.

1943 Gomperz H. , “Problems and methods of early Greek science”, Journal of the history of ideas, iv, 161–76.

1944 Entralgo P. Lain , “El escrito De prisca medicina y su valor historiografico”, Emerita, xii, 1–28.

1945 Edelstein E. J. and Edelstein L. , Asclepius (2 vols, Baltimore).

1945 Heinimann F. , Nomos und Physis: Herkunft und Bedeutung einer Antithese im griechischen Denken des funften Jahrhunderts, Schweizerische Beiträge zur Altertumswissenschaft, i (Basle).

1945 Jones W. H. S. , “‘Hippocrates’ and the Corpus Hippocraticum”, Proceedings of the British Academy, xxxi, 103–25.

1945 Temkin O. , The falling sickness: A history of epilepsy from the Greeks to the beginnings of modern neurology (Baltimore).

1945 Verbeke G. , L'Évolution de la doctrine du pneuma (Paris/Louvain).

1946 Gigon O. , “Die naturphilosophischen Voraussetzungen der antiken Biologie”, Gesnerus, iii, 35–38.

1946 Jones W. H. S. , Philosophy and medicine in ancient Greece (Baltimore).

1947 Jaeger W. W. , The theology of the early Greek philosophers (Oxford).

1948 Festugière A. J. , Hippocrate: L'Ancienne médecine (Paris).

1948 Lichtenthaeler C. , La Médecine Hippocratique, i: Méthode expérimental et méthode hippocratique (Lausanne).

1948 Miller H. W. , “A medical theory of cognition”, Transactions of the American philological association, lxxix, 168–83.

1949–55 Diepgen P. , Geschichte der Medizin: Die historische Entwicklung der Heilkunde und des ärztlichen Lebens, i–ii (Berlin).

1950 Cornford F. M. , The unwritten philosophy and other essays (Cambridge).

1950 Solmsen F. , “Tissues and the soul”, Philosophical review, lix, 435–68.

1951 Lesky E. , Die Zeugungs- und Vererbungslehren der Antike (Wiesbaden).

1951 Sigerist H. E. , A history of medicine, i: Primitive and archaic medicine (New York).

1952 Cornford F. M. , Principium sapientiae (Cambridge).

1952 Diller H. , “Hippokratische Medizin und attische Philosophie”, Hermes, lxxx, 385–409.

1952 Edelstein L. , “Recent trends in the interpretation of ancient science”, Journal of the history of ideas, xiii, 573–604.

1952 Edelstein L. , “The relation of ancient philosophy to medicine”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xxvi, 299–316 (reprinted in Ancient medicine. ed. by Temkin O. Temkin C. L. (Baltimore, 1967), 349–66).

1952 Miller H. W. , “Dynamis and physis in On ancient medicine”, Transactions of the American Philological Association, lxxxiii, 184–97.

1953 Bourgey L. , Observation et expérience chez les médecins de la collection hippocratique (Paris).

1953 Farrington B. , Greek science (London; rev. edn, London, 1961).

1953 Miller H. W. , “The concept of the divine in De morbo sacro”, Transactions of the American Philological Association, lxxxiv, 1–15.

1953 Müri W. , “Melancholie und schwarze Galle”, Museum Helveticum, x, 21–38.

1953 Temkin O. , “Greek medicine as science and craft”, Isis, xliv, 213–25.

1953 Vlastos G. , “Isonomia”, American journal of philology, lxxiv, 337–66.

1955 Miller H. W. , “Technē and discovery in On ancient medicine”, Transactions of the American Philological Association, lxxxvi, 51–62.

1955 Vlastos G. , Review of Cornford F.M. , Principium sapientiae, Gnomon, xxvii, 65–76.

1956 Diels H. and Kranz W. , Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, 8th edn (3 vols, Berlin).

1956 Kühn J.-H. , System- und Methodenprobleme im Corpus Hippocraticum , Hermes Einzelschriften, xi (Wiesbaden).

1956 Temkin O. , “On the interrelationship of the history and the philosophy of medicine”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xxx, 241–51.

1957 Jaeger W. , “Aristotle's use of medicine as a model of method in his ethics”, Journal of Hellenic studies, lxxvii, 54–61.

1957 Kirk G. S. and Raven J. E. , The Presocratic philosophers (Cambridge).

1957 Solmsen F. , “The vital heat, the inborn pneuma and the aether”, Journal of Hellenic studies, lxxvii, 119–23.

1960 Fränkel H. , Wege und Formen frühgriechischen Denkens, 2nd edn (Munich).

1960 Joly R. , Recherches sur le traité pseudo-hippocratique Du régime (Bibliothèque de la Faculté de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Université de Liège, 156; Paris/Liège).

1960 Miller H. W. , “The concept of dynamis in De victu”, Transactions of The American Philological Association, xc, 147–64.

1961 Heinimann F. , “Eine vorplatonische Theorie der ”, Museum Helveticum, xviii, 105–30.

1961 Jouanna J. , “Presence d'Empédocle dans la Collection Hippocratique”, Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume Budé, 452–63.

1961 Sigerist H. E. , A history of medicine, ii: Early Greek, Hindu and Persian medicine (New York).

1962 Diller H. , Hippokrates Schriften: Die Anfänge der abendländischen Medizin (Hamburg).

1962 Guthrie W. K. C. , A history of Greek philosophy, i: The earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans (Cambridge).

1962 Verdenius W. J. , “Science grecque et science moderne”, Revue philosophique, lxxxvii, 319–36.

1963 Alexanderson B. , Die hippokratische Schrift Prognostikon: Uberlieferung und Text (Studia Graeca et Latina Gothoburgensia, 17; Götheborg).

1963 Clarke E. , “Apoplexy in the Hippocratic writings”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xxxvii, 301–14.

1963 Dihle A. , “Kritisch-exegetische Bemerkungen zur Schrift ‘Über die Alte Heilkunst”’, Museum Helveticum, xx, 135–50.

1963 Herter H. , “Die kulturhistorische Theorie der Hippokratischen Schrift von der alten Medizin”, Maia, xv, 464–83.

1963 Lloyd G. E. R. , “Who is attacked in On ancient medicine!”, Phronesis, viii, 108–26.

1963 Longrigg J. , “Philosophy and medicine; Some early interactions”, Harvard studies in classical philology, lxvii, 147–75.

1963 Mugler C. , Les origines de la sciènce Grecque (Paris).

1963 Schumacher J. , Antike Medizin: Die naturphilosophischen Grundlagen der Medizin in der griechischen Antike, 2nd impression (Berlin).

1964 Diller H. , “Ausdrucksformen des methodischen Bewusstseins in den hippokratischen Epidemien”, Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte, ix, 133–50 (reprinted in his Kleine Schriften zur antiken Literatur (Munich, 1971)).

1964 Joly R. , Hippocrate: Médecine grecque (Paris).

1964 Kucharski P. , “Anaxagore et les idées biologiques de son siècle”, Revue philosophique, cliv, 137–66.

1964 Longrigg J. , “A note on Anaximenes fragment 2”, Phronesis, ix, 1–4.

1964 Mackinney L. , “The concept of isonomia in Greek medicine”, Isonomia, ed. by Mau J. and Schmidt E. G. (Berlin), 79–88.

1964 Plamböck G. , Dynamis im Corpus Hippocraticum (Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz. Abhandlungen der geistes- und socialwissenschaftlichen Klasse, ii; Wiesbaden).

1964 Schöner E. , Das Viererschema in der antiken Humoralpathologie (Sudhoffs Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften, iv; Wiesbaden).

1965 Guthrie W. K. C. , A history of Greek philosophy, ii: The Presocratic tradition from Parmenides to Democritus (Cambridge).

1965 Jouanna J. , “Rapports entre Mélissos de Samos et Diogène d'Apollonie à la lumière du traité hippocratique De natura hominis”, Revue des études anciennes, lxvii, 306–23.

1965 Mueller C. W. , “Die Heilung ‘durch das Gleiche’ in den hippokratischen Schriften De morbo sacro und De locis in homine”, Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin, xlix, 225–49.

1965 Mueller C. W. , Gleiches zu Gleichem, ein Prinzip frühgriechischen Denkens (Wiesbaden).

1965 Schumacher J. , Die Anfänge abendländischern Medizin in der griechischen Antike (Stuttgart).

1965 Thivel A. , “La doctrine des et ses parallèles hippocratiques”, Revue de philologie, xxxix, 266–82.

1966 Edelstein L. , “The distinctive Hellenism of Greek medicine”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xl, 197–225.

1966 Flashar H. , Melancholie und Melancholiker in den medizinischen Theorien der Antike (Berlin).

1966 Joly R. , Le niveau de la science hippocratique (Paris).

1966 Jouanna J. , “La theorie de l'intelligence et de l'âme dans le traité hippocratique Du régime: Ses rapports avec Empédocle et le Timée de Platon”, Revue des études grecques, lxxix, 15–19.

1966 Longrigg J. , “The sun and the planets”, Apeiron, i, 19–31.

1967 Cole T. , Democritus and the sources of Greek anthropology (American Philological Association, Philological monographs, xxv).

1967 Joly R. , Hippocrate: Du régime (Paris; Budé edn, vi, pt 1).

1967 Kudlien F. , Der Beginn des medizinischen Denkens bei den Griechen (Zürich and Stuttgart).

1967 Temkin O. and Temkin C. L. , (eds), Ancient medicine: Selected papers of Ludwig Edelstein (Baltimore).

1968 Grensemann H. , Die hippokratische Schrift “Über die heilige Krankheit” (Ars Medica, Abt.ii, Bd.i, Berlin).

1968 Grensemann H. , “Der Arzt Polybos als Verfasser hippokratischer Schriften”, Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur im Mainz, ii, 53–95.

1968 Nörenberg H.-W. , Das Göttliche und die Natur in der Schrift Über die heilige Krankheit (Diss., Bonn).

1969 Guthrie W. K. C. , A history of Greek philosophy, iii: The fifth century enlightenment (Cambridge).

1970 Diller H. , Hippokrates: Über die Umwelt (Corpus medicorum graecorum, i, i, 2; Berlin).

1971 Deichgräber K. , Die Epidemien und das Corpus hippocraticum (Berlin and New York).

1971 Diller H. , “Die griechische Naturbegriff”, in his Kleine Schriften zur antiken Literatur (Munich), 144–61.

1971 Flashar H. (ed.), Antike Medizin (Darmstadt).

1971 von Fritz H. , Grundprobleme der Geschichte der antiken Wissenschaft (Berlin and New York).

1971 Mansfeld J. , The Pseudo-hippocratic tract ch. i–xi and Greek philosophy (Assen).

1971 Temkin O. , The falling sickness: The history of epilepsy from the Greeks to the beginnings of modern neurology, 2nd edn (Baltimore).

1971 Wightman W. P. D. , The emergence of scientific medicine (Edinburgh).

1972 Bachelard G. , La formation de l'esprit scientifique, 8th edn (Paris).

1972 Joly R. , Hippocrate: Du régime des maladies aiguës etc. (Paris; Budé edn, vi, pt 2).

1972 Wasserstein A. , “Le rôle des hypothèses dans la médecine grecque”, Revue philosophique, clxii, 3–14.

1973 Diller H. , Kleine Schriften zur antiken Medizin (Berlin).

1973 Harris C. R. S. , The heart and the vascular system in ancient Greek medicine from Alcmaeon to Galen (Oxford).

1973 Phillips E. D. , Greek medicine (London).

1974 Fränkel H. , “Xenophanes' empiricism and his critique of knowledge (B34)”, in The Presocratics, ed. by Mourelatos A. P. D. (New York), 118–31. (Translation by Cosgrove M. R. of “Der Empirismus des Xenophanes und seine Erkenntniskritik”, originally published as Part ii of “Xenophanesstudien”, Hermes, lx (1925), 174–92. See, too, his Wege und Formen frühgriechischen Denkens (Munich, 1960), 338–49).

1974 Jouanna J. , Hippocrate: Pour une archéologie de l'école de Cnide (Paris).

1975 Bourgey L. and Jouanna J. , (eds), La collection hippocratique et son rôle dans l'histoire de la médecine (Leiden).

1975 Diller H. , “Das Selbstverständnis der Griechischen Medizin in der Zeit des Hippokrates”, La collection hippocratique et son rôle dans l'histoire de la médecine: Colloque de Strasbourg (Leiden), 77–93.

1975 Jouanna J. , Hippocrate: La nature de l'homme (Corpus medicorum Graecorum, i, 1, 3; Berlin).

1975 Lloyd G. E. R. , “Alcmaeon and the early history of dissection”, Sudhoffs Archiv, lix, 113–47.

1975 Lloyd G. E. R. , “The hippocratic question”, Classical quarterly, n.s., xxv, 171–92.

1975 Lloyd G. E. R. , “Aspects of the interrelations of medicine, magic and philosophy in ancient Greece”, Apeiron, ix, 1–16.

1975 Lloyd G. E. R. , “The role of medicine in the development of early Greek science”, Lampas, viii, 327–33.

1975 Majno G. , The healing hand (Cambridge, Mass.).

1975 Mansfeld J. , “Alcmaeon: ‘physikos’ or physician?”, in Kephalaion, ed. by Mansfeld J. and de Rijk L. M. (Assen), 26–38.

1976 Longrigg J. , “The ‘roots’ of all things”, Isis, lxvii, 420–38.

1977 Ducatillon J. , Polémiques dans la collection hippocratique (Paris/Lille).

1977 Joly R. (ed.), Corpus hippocraticum (Actes du colloque hippocratique de Mons, 1975, editions Universitaires de Mons, série science humaines iv, Université de Mons).

1977 Kudlien F. , “Das Göttliche und die Natur im hippokratischen Prognostiken”, Hermes, cv, 268–74.

1977 Shaw J. R. , “A note on the anatomical and philosophical claims of Diogenes of Apollonia”, Apeiron, xi, 53–57.

1979 Lloyd G. E. R. , Magic, reason and experience (Cambridge).

1979 Smith W. D. , The Hippocratic tradition (Ithaca and London).

1980 Grmek M. D. , Hippocratica (Actes du Colloque Hippocratique de Paris 4–9 Septembre 1978) (Paris).

1980 Mansfeld J. , “Theoretical and empirical attitudes in early Greek scientific medicine”, Hippocratica (Actes du Colloque Hippocratique de Paris), ed. by Grmek M. D. (Paris), 371–91.

1981 Lonie I. M. , The Hippocratic treatises, “On generation”, “On the nature of the child” and “Diseases iv” (Ars medica, II, vii; Berlin/New York).

1981 Thivel A. , Cnide et Cos?: Essai sur les doctrines médicales dans la Collection Hippocratique (Paris).

1982 Barnes J. , The Presocratic philosophers, rev. edn (London).

1982 Maloney G. and Savoie R. , Cinq cents ans de bibliographie hippocratique 1473–1982 (Quebec).

1983 Duminil M.-P. , Le sang, les vaisseaux, le cœur dans la Collection Hippocratique, anatomie et physiologie (Paris).

1983 King H. , “Bound to bleed: Artemis and Greek women”, Chap. 18 in Images of women in Antiquity, ed. by Cameron A. and Kuhrt A. (Beckenham), 109–41.

1983 Longrigg J. , “[Hippocrates] Ancient medicine and its intellectual context”, Formes de pensée dans la Collection Hippocratique: Actes du quatrième Colloque International Hippocratique, ed. by Lasserre F. and Mudry P. (Geneva), 249–56.

1983 Lloyd G. E. R. , Science, folklore and ideology: Studies in the life sciences in ancient Greece (Cambridge).

1985 Longrigg J. , “A seminal ‘debate’ in the fifth century B.C.?”, Aristotle on nature and living things, ed. by Gotthelf A. (Pittsburgh), 277–87.

1985 Longrigg J. , “Elements and after: A study in Presocratic physics of the second half of the fifth century”, Apeiron, xix, 93–115.