Science,Magic and Religion: A Contextual Reassessment of Geography in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

Cohen I. Bernard , Revolution in science (Cambridge, Mass., 1985). See also Hooykaas R. , “The rise of modern science: When and why?”, The British journal for the history of science, xx (1987), 453–73.

See Hunter Michael , Science and society in Restoration England (Cambridge, 1981), chap. 4 on “Utility and its problems”; Webster Charles , The great instauration: Science, medicine and reform 1626–1660 (London, 1975).

The following materials provide useful insights into this topic: Frances Yates A. , “The hermetic tradition in Renaissance science”, in Singleton Charles S. (ed.), Art, science, and history in the Renaissance (Baltimore, 1967), 255–74; Yates , The Rosicrucian enlightenment (London, 1986; first pub. 1972); Webster Charles , From Paracelsus to Newton: Magic and the making of modern science (Cambridge, 1982); Thomas Keith , Religion and the decline of magic (London, 1971); Westman R. S. and McGuire J. E. , Hermeticism and the scientific revolution (Los Angeles, 1977); Debus Allen G. , Man and nature in the Renaissance (Cambridge, 1978).

Quoted in Webster , From Paracelsus to Newton, 32, 64; see also Debus , Man and nature, 13.

Shea William R. , “Galileo and the church”, in Lindberg David C. and Numbers Ronald L. (eds), God and nature: Historical essays on the encounter between Christianity and science (Berkeley, 1986), 114–35, p. 132.

I should point out, however, that in the latter work, John William Draper focused his attack on Catholicism while maintaining that science was the twin sister of the Reformation. Draper John William , History of the conflict between religion and science (London, 1875), 353.

The following works are relevant: Dillenberger John , Protestant thought and natural science: A historical interpretation (London, 1961); Klaaren Eugene , Religious origins of modern science (Grand Rapids, 1977); Westfall Richard , Science and religion in seventeenth century England (New Haven, 1958); Hooykaas R. , Religion and the rise of modern science (Edinburgh, 1972); Deason Gary B. , “Reformation theology and the mechanistic conception of nature”, in Lindberg and Numbers (eds), God and nature (ref. 5), 167–91; Gerrish B. A. , “The Reformation and the rise of modern science”, in Brauer Jerald C. (ed.), The impact of the church upon its culture (Chicago, 1968), 231–75; Westman Robert S. , “The Melanchthon circle, Rheticus, and the Wittenberg interpretation of the Copernican theory”, Isis, lxvi (1975), 164–93; idem, “The Copernicans and the churches”, in Lindberg and Numbers (eds), God and nature, 76–113; Hooykaas R. , “Science and reformation”, Journal of world history, iii (1956), 109–39; Deason Gary B. , “The Protestant Reformation and the rise of modern science”, Scottish journal of theology, xxxviii (1985), 221–40; idem, “Reformation theology and the mechanistic conception of nature”, in Lindberg and Numbers (eds), God and nature, 167–91.

For various perspectives on this, see Merton Robert K. , “Science, technology and society in seventeenth century England”, Osiris, iv (1938), 360–632; Webster Charles (ed.), The intellectual revolution of the seventeenth century (London, 1974); Hill Christopher , The intellectual origins of the English revolution (Oxford, 1965); Westfall , Science and religion in seventeenth century England (ref. 7); Webster , The great instauration (ref. 2); Morgan John , “Puritanism and science: A reinterpretation”, Historical journal, xxii (1979), 535–60; Kemsley Douglas S. , “Religious influences in the rise of modern science: A review and criticism, particularly of the ‘Protestant-Puritan ethic’ theory”, Annals of science, xxiv (1968), 199–226; Webster Charles , “Puritanism, separatism, and science”, in Lindberg and Numbers (eds), God and nature (ref. 5), 192–217; Hooykaas R. , “Puritanism and science” in Open University, Science and belief from Copernicus to Darwin, Block 3, Unit 6 (Milton Keynes, 1974), 5–32, p. 21.

Cuningham William , The cosmographical glasse, conteinyng the pleasant principles of cosmographie, geographie, hydrographie, or nauigation (London, 1559), 133. Cuningham's plan of Norwich is similar to the earlier perspective view of Venice in Benedetto Bordone's Isolario of 1528. It is reproduced in Hodgkiss Alan , Understanding maps: A systematic history of their use and development (Folkestone, 1981), 134.

The following are useful sources about the life and geographical writings of John Dee: Taylor E. G. R. , Tudor geography 1485–1583 (London, 1930); Yates Frances A. , Theatre of the world (London, 1969); Yates , Rosicrucian enlightenment (ref. 3); French Peter J. , John Dee: The world of an Elizabethan magus (London, 1972); Deacon Richard , John Dee: Scientist, geographer, astrologer and secret agent to Elizabeth I (London, 1968).

[Thomas Blundeville], Blvndevile M. , His exercises, containing sixe treatises … very necessarie to be read and learned of all yoong gentlemen that have not bene exercised in such disciplines, and yet are desirous to have knowledge as well in cosmographie, astronomie, and geographic as also in the arte of navigation … (London, 1594), 134, 192, 232. The popularity of this work is attested by the fact that it had entered its seventh edition by 1636. Blundeville was also author of A briefe description of vniversal mappes and cardes, and of their vse: And also the vse of Ptholemey his tables. Necessarie for those that delight in reading of histories: And also for traueilers by land or sea (London, 1589).

Cosgrove Denis , “Geography and the mathematical arts: Considerations on humanism, the occult and geography in the late Renaissance”, unpublished typescript. I am grateful to Dr Cosgrove for permission to refer to this paper.

Quoted in Thomas , Religion and the decline of magic (ref. 3), 354.

See Büttner Manfred , “The significance of the Reformation for the reorientation of geography in Lutheran Germany”, History of science, xvii (1979), 139–69; idem, “Philipp Melanchthon 1497–1560”, in Geographers: Biobibliographical studies, iii (London, 1979), 93–97; Büttner Manfred and Burmeister Karl H. , “Sebastian Münster 1488–1552”, in Geographers: Biobibliographical studies, iii, 99–106; Burmeister Karl Heinz , Sebastian Münster: Versuch eines biographischen Gesamtbildes (Basel, 1963); Büttner Manfred , “On the history and philosophy of the geography of religion in Germany”, Paper presented at the XVth International Congress of the History of Science, Edinburgh, 10–19 August 1977.

On Keckermann see Büttner Manfred , “Bartholomäus Keckermann 1572–1609”, in Geographers: Biobibliographical studies, ii (London, 1977), 73–79; Rose Paul Lawrence , “Keckermann, Bartholomew”, Dictionary of scientific biography (New York, 1970–80), s.v.; May J. A. , “The geographical interpretation of Ptolemy in the Renaissance”, Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, lxxiii (1982), 350–61; Bowen Margarita , Empiricism and geographical thought from Francis Bacon to Alexander von Humboldt (Cambridge, 1981), 69–70.

Büttner Manfred , “Kant and the physico-theological consideration of the geographical facts”, Organon, xi (1975), 231–49, p. 237.

Bullough Vern L. , “Varenius, Bernhardus”, Dictionary of scientific biography, s.v.; May , “Geographical interpretation of Ptolemy” (ref. 15), 359; Bowen , Empiricism and geographical thought (ref. 15), 77–90.

Mill Hugh Robert , “On research in geographical science”, Geographical journal, xviii (1901), 407–24, p. 410; Baker J. N. L. , “Nathanael Carpenter and English geography in the seventeenth century”, Geographical journal, lxxi (1928), 261–71; Taylor E. G. R. , Late Tudor and early Stuart geography 1583–1650 (London, 1934), 136; Bowen , Empiricism and geographical thought (ref. 15), 72; Carpenter Nathanael , Geography delineated forth in two bookes: Containing the sphaericall and topicall parts thereof (Oxford, 1625), chap. 10.

C[arpenter] N[athanael] , Achitophel, or, the picture of a wicked politician (London, 1627).

C[ourtney] W. P. , “Carpenter, Nathanael (1589–1628?)”, Dictionary of national biography , s.v.; Fuller Thomas , “Nathaniel [sic] Carpenter”, in The history of the worthies of England (London, new edn, 1840), i, 424.

Hooykaas R. , Philosophia libera: Christian faith and the freedom of science (London, 1957), 20–21; [ Carpenter Nathanael ], Philosophia libera (Oxford, 1622).

Bowen , Empiricism and geographical thought, 76; Gilbert Edmund W. , British pioneers in geography (Newton Abbot, 1972), 54.

Pemble William , A briefe introduction to geography (Oxford, 1630), 13.

Webster , The great instauration (ref. 2), 422.

ibid., 334, 335, 350, 429. On the cartography of Saxton and Speed, see Evans Ifor M. and Lawrence Heather , Christopher Saxton: Elizabethan map-maker (London, 1979); Tyacke S. and Huddy E. J. , Christopher Saxton and Tudor map-making (London, 1980); Harley J. B. , “Meaning and ambiguity in Tudor cartography”, in Tyacke Sarah (ed.), English map-making, 1500–1650 (London, 1983), 22–45; Tooley R. V. , Maps and map-makers (New York, 1970).

Egerton Frank N. III , “Petty, William”, Dictionary of scientific biography, s.v.

Webster , From Paracelsus (ref. 3), 62.

Andrews J. H. , Plantation acres: A historical study of the Irish land surveyor and his maps (Belfast, 1985), 65–67.

Webster , The great instauration (ref. 2), 442.

Hill , Intellectual origins (ref. 8), 67.

See de Dainville François , La géographie des humanistes (Paris, 1940); Campbell John , Maritime discovery and Christian missions, considered in their mutual relations (London, 1840).

See Waters David W. , The arts of navigation in England in Elizabethan and early Stuart times (London, 1958); Taylor E. G. R. , The mathematical practitioners of Tudor and Stuart England, 1485–1714 (Cambridge, 1954).

D.P., Certaine brief and necessarie rules of geographic seruing for the vnderstanding of chartes and mappes (London, 1573).

Quoted in English Experience. Books printed in England before 1640. A descriptive catalogue (Norwood, N.J., n.d.), 210.

Cooke Francis , The principles of geometrie, astronomie, and geographie. Wherein is breefely, euidently, and methodically deliuered, whatsoeuer appertaineth unto the knowledge of the said sciences. Gathered out of the table of the astronomicall institutions of Georgius Henischius (London, 1591).

Dictionary of national biography, s.v.; Taylor , Late Tudor and early Stuart geography (ref. 18), 37; Gilbert Edmund W. , “‘Geographie is better than divinity’”, in Gilbert , British pioneers in geography (ref. 22), 44–58.

Heylyn Peter , Microcosmus or a little description of the great world: A treatise historicall, geographicall, politicall, theologicall (Oxford, 1621), 6. Among his ecclesiastical works was Aerius redivivus: Or, the history of the Presbyterians (Oxford, 1670).

Wallis Helen , “Hakluyt, Richard”, Dictionary of scientific biography, s.v.; Taylor , Late Tudor and early Stuart geography (ref. 18), 1–38.

Hill , Intellectual origins (ref. 8), 131–224.

Hariot Thomas , A briefe and true report of the New Found Land of Virginia (London, 1588). A recent study of Hariot is Shirley John W. , Thomas Hariot: A biography (Oxford, 1983); Hawkins Richard Sir , The observations of Sr. R. Hawkins in his voiage into the South Sea 1593 (London, 1622); Harcourt Robert , A relation of a voyage to Guiana (London, 1613); Purchas Samuel , His pilgrimage (London, 1613). Purchas, incidentally, was chaplain to George Abbot and was under his patronage.

Glacken Clarence J. , Traces on the Rhodian shore: Nature and culture in Western thought from ancient times to the end of the eighteenth century (Berkeley, 1967), 434.