ThomsonArthur S., “Could the natives of a temperate climate colonize and increase in a tropical country and vice versa?”, Transactions of the Medical and Physiological Society of Bombay, vi (1843), 112–38; FelkinRobert W., “Can Europeans become acclimatised in tropical Africa?”, Scottish geographical magazine, ii (1886), 647–57; MooreWilliamSir, “Is the colonisation of tropical Africa by Europeans possible?”, Transactions of the Epidemiological Society, x (1891), 27–45; WardRobert DeC., “Can the white race become acclimatized in the tropics?”, Gerlands Beiträge zur Geopolitik, xxxii (1931), 149–57.
2.
FreemanT. W., A hundred years of geography (London, 1965), 14.
3.
See LivingstoneDavid N., “The history of science and the history of geography: Interactions and implications”, History of science, xxii (1984), 271–302.
4.
BowmanIsaiah (ed.), Limits of land settlement: A report on present-day possibilities (New York, 1937).
5.
See also GilbertE. W., “Pioneer maps of health and disease in England”, Geographical journal, cxxiv (1958), 172–83; HoweG. Melvyn, National atlas of disease mortality in the United Kingdom (London, 1963), 7–16 contains a brief historical review of the mapping of disease.
6.
JohnsonJames, The influence of tropical climates on European constitutions; being a treatise on the principal diseases incidental to Europeans in the East and West Indies, Mediterranean, and Coast of Africa, 3rd edn (London, 1821), 3, 4; MartinJames Ranald, The influence of tropical climates on European constitutions, including practical observations on the nature and treatment of the diseases of Europeans on their return from tropical climates, new edn (London, 1856). Johnson, an Ulsterman and founder of the Medico-chirurgical review, authored numerous works including The influence of the atmosphere on the health of the human frame (London, 1818), and The oriental voyager, or descriptive sketches and cursory remarks on a voyage to India and China in His Majesty's Ship Caroline (London, 1807).
7.
See MayrErnst, The growth of biological thought: Diversity, evolution, and inheritance (Cambridge, Mass., 1982), 362.
8.
WeinerDouglas R., “The roots of ‘Michurinism’: Transformist biology and acclimatization as currents in the Russian life sciences”, Annals of science, xlii (1985), 244–60.
9.
See RipleyWilliam Z., The races of Europe: A sociological study (London, 1899).
10.
Armand de Quatrefages, The human species (New York, 1879), 237. See also StockingGeorge W.Jr, Race, culture and evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology (Chicago, 1968), 53–55.
11.
FelkinRobert W., “Uganda”, Scottish geographical magazine, ii (1886), 208–26; idem, “The distribution of disease in Africa”, Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, (1893), Section E, 839.
12.
For his presentation on “Tropical highlands, their suitability for European settlement” to the VIIth International Congress on Hygiene and Demography, for example, Felkin included a map of colonization zones drawn by MillH. R. At the same Congress Clements Markham presented a paper entitled “On the suitability of mountainous regions and of islands in the tropics for European settlement”, Transactions of the Seventh Congress on Hygiene and Demography, x (1892), 178–83.
13.
See Weiner, op. cit. (ref. 8).
14.
KirkJohnSir, “The extent to which tropical Africa is suited for development by the white races, or under their superintendence”, Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress, London 1895 (London, 1896), 526.
15.
This whole episode is discussed in KassAmalie M., “Dr Thomas Hodgkin, Dr Martin Delany, and the ‘Return to Africa’”, Medical history, xxvii (1983), 373–93.
16.
See von ZittelKarl, History of geology and palaeontology (London, 1901); LubbockJohnSir, The origin of civilisation and the primitive condition of man (London, 1870); NewbiginMarion I., Animal geography: The faunas of the natural regions of the globe (Oxford, 1913); JohnsonH. H., British Central Africa (London, 1897).
17.
Chairman's Address, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, i (1832), vii.
18.
Martin, Influence of tropical climates (ref. 6), 1–32.
19.
A general discussion of this from a Marxist perspective is available in HudsonBrian, “The new geography and the new imperialism: 1870–1918”, Antipode, ix (1977), 12–19.
20.
RavensteinE. G., Discussion, Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress (ref. 14), 547.
21.
KirkJohn, op. cit. (ref. 14), and DècleLionel, “To what extent is tropical Africa suited for development by the white races, or under their supervision?”, Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress (ref. 14), 555–9.
22.
JohnstonHarrySir, Discussion, Geographical journal, xii (1898), 603.
23.
von PfeilGraf, “On tropical Africa in relation to white races”, Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress (ref. 14), 537–44, p. 542.
24.
CannonSusan Faye, Science in culture: The early Victorian period (New York, 1978), 105.
25.
Martin, op. cit. (ref. 6), 413–33.
26.
Biographical details are available in LonsdaleH., A sketch of the life and writings of Robert Knox the anatomist (London, 1870).
27.
KnoxRobert, The races of men: A philosophical enquiry into the influence of race over the destinies of nations, 2nd edn (London, 1862), 86–87, 98, 103, 106, 107, 108.
28.
ibid., 142, 121–2.
29.
“Man and climate”, British and foreign medico-chirurgical review, li (1961), 1–23, pp. 2, 5, 4.
30.
NottJ. C., “Thoughts on acclimation and adaptation of races to climate”, American journal of medical science, v (1956), 320–34, pp. 323, 324, 327. Nott did admit the possibility of some acclimatization, especially among children, to temperature. Acclimatization to the endemic fevers of the tropics, however, was altogether different.
31.
ThomsonA. S., “On the doctrine of acclimatization”, Madras quarterly medical review, ii (1840), 69–76, pp. 69, 76.
32.
ThomsonArthur S., “Could the natives of a temperate climate colonize and increase in a tropical country and vice versa?”, Transactions of the Medical and Physiological Society of Bombay, vi (1843), 112–38, p. 130.
33.
ibid., 137.
34.
Johnson, Influence of tropical climates (ref. 6), 2, 3.
35.
CullimoreD. H., “On tropical and sub-tropical climates and the acclimatisation of the fair races in hot countries”, The medical press, 31 October 1888, 436–9, 461–4, p. 437.
36.
CullimoreD. H., The book of climates: Acclimatization; climatic diseases; health resorts and mineral springs; sea sickness; sea voyages; and sea bathing, 2nd edn with a chapter on “The climate of Africa as it affects Europeans” by ParkeSurgeon (London, 1891).
37.
MooreWilliamSir, “Is the colonisation of tropical Africa by Europeans possible?”, Journal of the Epidemiological Society, x (1891), 27–45, pp. 36, 38, 36, 40.
38.
See PrichardJames C., The natural history of man, 2nd edn (London, 1845); HuntJames, “On ethno-climatology; or the acclimatisation of man”, Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, n. s., ii (1863), 50–84; RipleyW. Z., The races of Europe: A sociological study (London, 1899).
39.
Ripley, Races of Europe, 584.
40.
RavensteinE. G., “Lands of the globe still available for European settlement”, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, n. s., xiii (1891), 27–35.
41.
HuntingtonEllsworth, “The adaptability of the white man to tropical America”, Journal of race development, v (1914), 185–211, pp. 199, 211. Huntington further pursued the subject in Civilization and climate (New Haven, 1915). Huntington's viewpoint comes through in the work of Griffith Taylor, Environment, race, and migration (Toronto, 1937). Commenting on the temperate zone, Julian Huxley observed, in an essay first published in the Atlantic monthly: “It contains the belt of cyclonic storms - in other words, of rapid and frequent changes of weather. And this type of climate, as Ellsworth Huntington has shown, is the one most stimulating to human energy and achievement.” HuxleyJulian, The uniqueness of man (London, 1942), 86.
42.
WilliamsPhilip C., “On acclimation”, The medical examiner and record of medical science, lxviii (1850), 439–510, pp. 446, 448, 503, 505, 504.
43.
Martin, Influence of tropical climates (ref. 6), 59–63.
44.
KoelschW. A., “Robert DeCourcy Ward. 1867–1931”, Geographers: Biobibliographical studies, vii (1983), 145–50, p. 147.
45.
WardRobert DeC., “Fallacies of the melting pot idea and America's traditional immigration policy”, in GrantMadison and DavisonChas Steward (eds), The alien in our midst or “Selling our birthright for a mess of industrial pottage” (New York, 1930), 230–6, p. 231.
46.
WardRobert DeC., “Can the white race become acclimatized in the tropics?”, Gerlands Beiträge zur Geopolitik, xxxii (1931), 149–57, p. 157.
47.
BerghausA., “Adaptation to climate”, Popular science monthly, xxv (1884), 396–9, p. 398.
48.
FelkinRobert W., “Can Europeans become acclimatized in tropical Africa?”, Scottish geographical magazine, ii (1886), 647–57, p. 648, 650.
49.
FelkinRobert W., “Tropical highlands: Their suitability for European settlement”, Transactions of the Seventh International Congress on Hygiene and Demography, x (1892), 155–64, p. 162.
50.
FelkinRobert W., “On acclimatisation”, Scottish geographical magazine, vii (1891), 647–56, pp. 650, 649, 654.
51.
Felkin, “Can Europeans …” (ref. 48), 655.
52.
MarkhamClements R., “On the suitability of mountainous regions and of islands in the tropics for European settlement”, Transactions of the Seventh International Congress on Hygiene and Demography, x (1892), 178–83, pp. 180, 183. Biographical details are available in MarkhamAlbert H., The life of Sir Clements R. Markham K.C.B., F.R.S. (London, 1917). More generally geographers' interest in the medical effects of highlands is also evident in DentClinton, “Physiological effects of high altitudes”, Geographical journal, i (1893), 46–48.
53.
SambonLuigi, “Remarks on the possibility of the acclimatisation of Europeans in tropical regions”, British medical journal, i (1897), 61–66, p. 61.
54.
SambonL. Westernra, “Acclimatization of Europeans in tropical lands”, Geographical journal, xii (1898), 589–606, p. 593.
Geographical journal, xii (1898), 604–5, 602, 604.
58.
WallaceAlfred Russel, “Acclimatization”, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edn (London, 1910), s.v. The pro-acclimatization stance was also shared by Joseph Deniker, who argued that “the so-called white race appears to have the aptitude of acclimatation in all countries, provided, of course, that it makes the necessary sacrifices for several generations”. Indeed a consequence of “the facility of acclimatation” for Deniker was “the cosmopolitanism of mankind”. DenikerJ., The races of man: An outline of anthropology and ethnography, 2nd edn (London, [circa 1900]), 119.
59.
See McMullinErnan, “History and philosophy of science: A marriage of convenience?”, Philosophy of Science Association, (1974), 585–601.
60.
KirmizJ. P., Adaptation to desert environment: A study on the jeroba, rat and man (London, 1962), 76.
61.
HattJohn, The tropical traveller (London, 1982).
62.
McMullinErnan, “The rational and the social in the history of science”, in BrownJames Robert (ed.), Scientific rationality: The sociological turn (Dordrecht, 1984), 154.
63.
GreeneJohn C., American science in the age of Jefferson (Ames, 1984), 29.
64.
Editorial, The medical and surgical reporter, v (issue of 9 March 1861), 623–4.
65.
BartonE. H., Introductory lecture on acclimation (New Orleans, 1837), 11, 12, 16–17.
66.
“Acclimation; and the liability of negroes to the endemic fevers of the South”, New Orleans medical news and hospital gazette, v (1858–59), 78–87, pp. 80, 86.
67.
See LivingstoneDavid N., Nathaniel Southgate Shaler and the culture of American science (University, Alabama, 1987). It is interesting to note that Clements Markham used Shaler's “masterly” treatment to support the claim that descendants of Englishmen have not deteriorated on the verge of the tropics. Markham, “Suitability of mountainous regions” (ref. 52), 180.
68.
ThomsonJoseph, “East Central Africa, and its commercial outlook”, Scottish geographical magazine, ii (1886), 65–78, p. 66.
69.
StanleyH. M., Discussion, Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress (ref. 14), 553.
70.
WhiteA. Silva, “To what extent is tropical Africa suited for development by the white races, or under their superintendence?”, Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress (ref. 14), 549–53, pp. 549, 550.
71.
von PfeilGraf and EllguthKlein. “On tropical Africa in relation to white races”, Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress (ref. 14), 537–44, p. 543.
72.
Sambon, “Remarks” (ref. 53), 64.
73.
Wallace, “Acclimatization” (ref. 58), 117. In Wallace's case – at least early on in his career – this did not imply racial equality, for at that stage he distinguished between physical monogenism (the single biological origin of the species) and moral polygenism (multiple derivations of morality). Thus at the 1864 British Association meeting he was reported as saying that “the relation of a civilized to an uncivilized race over whom it rules is exactly analogous to that of parent to child, or of adult to infants, and that a certain amount of despotic rule and guidance is as essential in the one case as it is in the other. The only question is as to the manner in which the ‘paternal despotism’ shall be carried out.” WallaceAlfred R., “On the progress of civilization in Northern Celebes”, Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, (1864), 150.
74.
OpplerA., “On acclimatisation”, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, n.s., ix (1887), 690–1.
75.
Nott, “Thoughts on acclimation” (ref. 30), 322.
76.
LurieEdward, Louis Agassiz: A life in science (Chicago, 1960), 252–66.
77.
I have discussed this in LivingstoneDavid N., “Preadamites: The history of an idea from heresy to orthodoxy”, Scottish journal of theology, xl (1987), 41–66.
78.
Quoted in StantonWilliam, The leopard's spots: Scientific attitudes toward race in America 1815–59 (Chicago, 1960), 21.
79.
See PopkinRichard H., “Pre-Adamism in 19th century American thought: ‘Speculative biology’ and racism”, Philosophia, viii (1978), 205–39.
80.
Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress (ref. 14), 533; Nott, “Thoughts on acclimation” (ref. 30); Oppler, “On acclimatisation” (ref. 74).
81.
Wallace, “Acclimatization” (ref. 58), 118; Kirk, “Extent to which tropical Africa suited for development” (ref. 14), 525.
82.
PlattIsaac Hull, “The problem of acclimatization”, Medical times, xv (1885), 676–8.