From Internalism to Externalism: A Study of Academic Resistance to New Scientific Findings

Beauperthuy L. D. , “Fiebre amarilla”, Gaceta oficial de Cumaná, lvii (1854); reprinted in Travaux scientifiques de Louis Daniel Beauperthuy (Bordeaux, 1891), 131–42, and in La obra de Beauperthuy (1807–1871) (Caracas, 1963), 260–70.

Beauperthuy L. D. , “Recherches sur la cause du choléra asiatique, sur celle du typhus ictérode et des fièvres de marécages”, Comptes rendus des séances de L'Académie du Sciences, xiv (1856), 692–3.

Beauperthuy L. D. , “Cause du choléra asiatique”, L'abeille médicale, xiii (1856), 117.

Agramonte A. , “Sobre los casos esporádicos de fiebre amarilla: Al Dr. Tomás Hernández de Sagua”, Crónica médico quirúrgica de La Habana (1907), 223–32; reprinted in de Benedetti R. Beauperthuy (comp.), Juicios y comentarios a la obra de Beauperthuy (Caracas, 1969), 86–90; idem, “An account of the Dr. Louis Daniel Beauperthuy, a pioneer in yellow fever research”, Boston medical and surgical journal, clviii (1908), 927–30; reprinted in de Benedetti R. Beauperthuy , Juicios, 91–100.

Sanabria A. , “Las etapas en la historia de la fiebre amarilla”, Revista de la Fundación José María Vargas, vi (1982), 31–32.

Dolby R. G. A. , “The transmission of science”, History of Science, xv (1977), 1–43.

Cadet S. , “Carta de Cadet a Beauperthuy”, dated in Rome, 25 December 1859, Bulletino della corrispondenza scientifica in Roma per l'avanzamento delle science, xxxii (1859), 178; reprinted in Llopis J. M. , Luis Daniel Beauperthuy (Crónicas de una vida) (Caracas, 1965), 249–51.

Cadet S. , “Sur la natura della febbre tifoide o nervosa e de morbi appiccaticci. Lettera del dottore Socrate Cadet, profesore di fisiologia nella Universitá di Roma, all'ilustrisimo ed excellentissimo sig. Dott. Domenico Ricciardelli in Fusignano”, Bulletin della corrispondenza scientifica in Roma per l'avanzamento delle scienze, v (1861), 1–15.

Stroppiana L. , Storia della medicina (Roma, 1982).

Brassac P. J. M. , 1872, quoted in Beauperthuy P. D. , “Introducción”, in La obra (ref. 1), 13; see also Travaux scientifiques (ref. 1), 7–15.

ibid., 12.

Brassac P. J. M. , “Eléphantiasis”, in Dechambre A. and Lereboullet L. (eds), Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales (Paris, 1886).

Mundarain J. M. Rivas , “Grata adquisición”, Escuela médica, x (1975); reprinted in La obra (ref. 1), 49–50.

Vigas J. J. , “Correspondencia cientifica”, La unión médica, ix (1881), 65–66.

El siglo, “Ultramar, crónica científica” (Caracas, 21 October 1881).

ibid.

Machado V. , “Fiebre amarilla o vómito negro”, El siglo (Caracas, 28 June 1881).

ibid.

Mundarain J. M. Rivas , “Correspondencia científica”, La unión médica, xxii (1882), 13.

ibid., 12.

Marcano V. , “Nuevas aplicaciones industriales que la nutrición de los hongos microscópicos ha recibido en la refinería del azúcar”, El siglo (Caracas, 13 May 1882).

Beauperthuy P. D. , “Prioridad científica”, El siglo (Caracas, 21 June 1882), published also in El ciudadano, xi (1882), and in Le courrier de la Gaudeloupe, lxviii (1882); reprinted in de Benedetti R. Beauperthuy , Juicios (ref. 4), 71–73.

ibid.

Marcano V. , “Prioridad cientifica”, El siglo (Caracas, 28 June 1882).

V. Marcano, “El primer aniversario de La Unión Médica”, La unión médica, xxii (1882), 1–2.

Marcano , op. cit. (ref. 24).

Beauperthuy P. D. , “En el centenario del ilustre Doctor José María Vargas, el día 10 de marzo de 1886”, Gaceta de los hospitales de Caracas (April, May, June 1886); reprinted in El pueblo, cclxxi–cclxxii (1891), and in de Benedetti R. Beauperthuy , Juicios (ref. 4), 74–78.

Villanueva L. , “Las ciencias médicas en Venezuela”, in Primer libro venezolano de literatura, ciencias y bellas artes (Caracas, 1974), 213–30, first edition 1895.

Crónica médico quirúrgica de La Habana , “Patología interna, parasitismo de la fiebre amarilla y de la tosis pulmonar”, vii (1882), 275–83.

Perna L. , Etiología y profilaxis de la fiebre amarilla (Cuba, 1884).

ibid., 9.

Morton L. T. , A medical bibliography (London, 1973).

Stepan N. , “The interplay between socio-economic factors and medical science: Yellow fever research, Cuba and the United States”, Social studies of science, viii (1978), 397–423.

Anales de la Real Academia de Ciencias Físicas y Naturales de La Habana (La Habana, 1890), 497.

ibid., 497.

Crónica médico quirúrgica de La Habana , “Fiebre amarilla”, i (1891), 74–76.

Stepan , op. cit. (ref. 33).

Perna L. , Profilaxis y tratamiento de la fiebre amarilla (Cuba, 1896), 12.

ibid., 12, italics ours.

ibid., 13.

Stepan , op. cit. (ref. 33).

Ackerknecht E. H. , History and geography of the most important diseases (New York, 1965), and Scott H. H. , “Yellow fever”, in A history of tropical medicine (London, 1942).

The yellow fever vector was classified as Aedes aegypti by Dyar in 1920. Prior to that date, Linneo had classified it as Culex aegypti (1762), Fabricius as Culex fasciatus (1805), Meigen as Culex calopus (1818) and Theobald as Stegomyia fasciata (1901). Other mosquitoes incriminated as yellow fever vectors belong to the Haemagogus and Sabethec genera. In Venezuela Surcouf and González (1911) and Tovar Nuñez (1924) identified Aedes aegypti as Stegomya calopus (information supplied by Octavio Suárez and Pablo Anduze).

Sanabria , op. cit. (ref. 5).

Agramonte , “Sobre los casos” (ref. 4), 87.

Agramonte , “An account” (ref. 4), 927.

ibid., 928.

Hernández T. , “Fiebre amarilla”, in Hernández T. Finlay C. and Agramonte A. , “La fiebre amarilla y su origen telúrico”, Crónica médico-quirúrgica de La Habana (Cuba, 1907), 37.

Boyce R. , Mosquito or man: The conquest of the tropical world (London, 1909); reprinted in de Benedetti R. Beauperthuy , Juicios (ref. 4), 109.

The British medical journal, “Nova et Vetera: A pioneer in research on yellow fever” (30 May 1908); reprinted in de Benedetti R. Beauperthuy , Juicios (ref. 4), 85.

Chauffard A. , “Leçon d'ouverture. Faculté de Médecine de Paris. Cours d'histoire de la médecine et de chirurgie”, La presse médicale, xxiii (1909), 201–6.

Leechman A. , “Mosquito-borne fevers: Dr. Beauperthuy as pioneer”, The daily argosy (6 May 1909); reprinted in de Benedetti R. Beauperthuy , Juicios (ref. 4), 115.

Lippman G. , Prix hréant (France, 1912), 72–73.

Blanchard R. , “Notices biographiques, xxiv: Louis Daniel Beauperthuy 1807–1871”, Archives de parasitologie, xvi (1914), 503–45; reprinted in de Benedetti R. Beauperthuy , Juicios (ref. 4), 127–65.

Leger M. , “A propos del Necator americanus stiles, 1902”, Bulletin de la Societé de Pathologie Exotique, xiv (France, 1921).

Morton , op. cit. (ref. 32); Stroppiana , op. cit. (ref. 9); Cisneros M. Zúñiga , Historia de la medicina (Madrid, 1978).

de Benedetti R. Beauperthuy , Luis Daniel Beauperthuy: Un apasionado de la ciencia al servicio de la humanidad (Cumaná, 1968); idem, Juicios (ref. 4); idem, Beauperthuy: Homenaje a Beauperthuy en el centenario de su muerte (Caracas 1971); idem, “Beauperthuy y su microscopio”, Revista de la Sociedad Venezolana de Historia de la Medicina, xxvii (1978), 59–64.

Sanabria A. and de Benedetti R. Beauperthuy , “Beauperthuy, pionero de la terapia integral de la lepra en América”, Acta médica Venezolana, xv (1968), 47–55; idem, Beauperthuy, ensayo biográfico (Caracas, 1969); idem, “Louis Daniel Beauperthuy et la méthode scientiflque, le rôle des moustiques dans la transmission de la fièvre jaune”, Les annales d'hygiène de langue française, vi (1966), 25–32.

Sanabria A. , “El papel de los mosquitos en la transmisión de la fiebre amarila”, El farol, xxiii (1971); 33–37; idem, “Juicio crítico sobre las investigaciones científicas de Luis Daniel Beauperthuy”, Acta médica Venezolana, xxi (1975); 73–77; idem, “Los pioneros de la bacteriología (microbiología) en Venezuela”, Acta médica Venezolana, xxvi (1982), 22–25.

Lakatos I. , “History of science and its rational reconstructions”, Boston studies in the philosophy of science, viii (1972), 91–136; idem, “Criticism and the methodology of scientific research programmes”, Proceedings of Aristotelian Society, lxix (1968), 149–86.

Merton R. K. , “The Matthew effect in science”, Science, clix (1968), 56–63.

Kuhn T. , The structure of scientific revolutions (Chicago, 1970); idem, “Notes on Lakatos”, Boston studies in the philosophy of science, viii (1972), 137–46.

Lakatos , “History of science” (ref. 60).

According to Lakatos “the methodology of scientific research programmes constitutes, like any other methodology, a historiographical research programme. The historian who accepts this methodology as a guide will look in history for rival research programmes, for progressive and degenerating problemshift” ( Lakatos , “History of science” (ref. 60), 101–2). A research programme “consists of methodological rules: Some tell us what paths of research to avoid (negative heuristic), and others what paths to pursue (positive heuristic)” ( Lakatos , “Criticism and the methodology” (ref. 60), 168). “A research programme is said to be progressing as long as it … keeps predicting novel facts with some success (progressive problemshift); [it] is stagnating if its theoretical growth lags behind its empirical growth, that is, as long as it gives only post-hoc explanation either of chance discoveries or of facts anticipated by, and discovered in, a rival programme (degenerating problemshift)” ( Lakatos , “History of science” (ref. 60), 160).

Lakatos , “History of science” (ref. 60), 100.

ibid., 106.

Barber B. , “Resistance by scientist to scientific discovery”, Science, cxxxiv (1961), 596–602.

Merton , op. cit. (ref. 61).

ibid., 59.

ibid.

Kuhn , The structure (ref. 62).

According to Kuhn, the term paradigm has two meanings: “on the one hand, it stands for the entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques, and so on, shared by the members of a given community. On the other hand, it denotes one sort of element of that constellation, the concrete puzzle-solutions which, employed as models or examples, can replace explicit rules as a basis for the solution of the remaining puzzles of normal science” ( Kuhn , The structure (ref. 62), 175).

Kuhn , “Notes” (ref. 62), 145.

Gilbert N. G. , “The transformation of research finding into scientific knowledge” Social studies of science, vi (1976), 281–306.

Dolby , op. cit. (ref. 6).

Minkov J. , “Consensual agreement and disagreement in the contemporary scientific community: Some characteristics”, Science of science, v (1981), 55–56.

Duncan S. S. , “The isolation of scientific discovery: Indifference and resistance to a new idea”, Science studies, iv (1974), 109–34.

Stepan , op. cit. (ref. 33).

Polanyi M. , “The potential theory of absorption: Authority in science has it uses and dangers”, Science, cxli (1963), 1010–13.

Polanyi M. , Personal knowledge: Towards a post-critical philosophy (Chicago, 1974).

Beauperthuy , “Climatología”, in La obra (ref. 1), 22–40.

Beauperthuy and de Roseville A. , “Lettre sur la présence d'animalcules dans diverses secrétions et excrétions de l'homme malade”, Comptes rendus des séances de L'Académie des Sciences, v (1837), 509; idem, “Animalcules microscopiques considérés comme cause de la putréfaction”, Journal des connaissanses médicales (1838), 203; idem, “Note sur les animalcules microscopiques considérés comme cause efficiente du cancer”, Comptes rendus des séances de L'Académie des Sciences, vi (1838), 64; idem, “Micrographie: Mémoire sur les animalcules microscopiques considérés comme cause de la putréfaction”, Comptes rendus des seánces de L'Academie des Sciences, vi (1838), 357–8.

Beauperthuy , “Epidemias. La peste. Epidemia catarral”, in La obra (ref. 1), 190; published also in Travaux scientifiques, 71–74.

Beauperthuy , op. cit. (ref. 1), 267.

Bernard C. , El método experimental y otras páginas filosóficas (Buenos Aires, 1947), first edition 1865.

Beauperthuy , “Descubrimiento hecho acerca del cólera morbus por el Dr. Luis Daniel Beauperthuy, profesor de medicina y cirugía de las Universidades de París y Caracas: Causa del cólera morbus”, La unión médica, i (1881), 67.

Beauperthuy , “Elefantiasis”, in La obra (ref. 1), 68; and Travaux scientifiques, 171–249.

Bernard , op. cit. (ref. 85).

ibid., 56.

ibid., 37.

Castiglioni A. , A history of medicine (New York, 1941).

Bernard , op. cit. (ref. 85), 59.

Ibid., 31–32.

Beauperthuy , op. cit. (ref. 1), 265.

Ibid., 268–9.

Sanabria , op. cit. (ref. 5).

Brassac , op. cit. (ref. 10), 12.

Crónica médico, op. cit. (ref. 36).

Brassac , op. cit. (ref. 10).

Cadet , op. cit. (refs 7 and 8).

Perna , op. cit. (ref. 30).

When Beauperthuy was studying in the School of Medicine in Paris (1822–37) Flourens was his Professor of Zoology in the Musée d'Histoire Naturelle.

Frydensberg A. , “Materiales para la bibliografia nacional”, in Primer libro, 303–36.

Mathews R. P. , Violencia rural en Venezuela (1840–1858): Antecedentes socio-económicos de la Guerra Federal (Caracas, 1977).

Planchart M. E. , “Los caminos de Venezuela como factor de integración politica (1830–1848)”, Politeia (1979), 149–95.

Celli B. Bruni , Historia de la Facultad Médica de Caracas (Caracas, 1957).

Vigas , op. cit. (ref. 14).

Machado , op. cit. (ref. 17).

Mundarain Rivas , op. cit. (ref. 19).

Beauperthuy , op. cit. (ref. 22).

Marcano , op. cit. (ref. 24).

Villanueva , op. cit. (ref. 28).

Barber , op. cit. (ref. 67).

Archila R. , Historia de la sanidad en Venezuela (Caracas, 1965); Villanueva , op. cit. (ref. 28).

Roche M. , “La investigación científica y tecnológica en Venezuela en los últimos 50 años”, in Venezuela moderna medio siglo de historia (1926–1976) (Caracas, 1979).