Newton in the Nursery: Tom Telescope and the Philosophy of Tops and Balls,1761–1838

For the advertisements, see Roscoe , John Newbery (cited in the Appendix above), 252.

E.g. Jacob M. C. , The Newtonians and the English Revolution, 1689–1720 (Ithaca, 1976); Jacob J. R. and Jacob M. C. , “The Anglican origins of modern science: The metaphysical foundations of the Whig constitution”, Isis, lxxi (1980), 251–67; Holmes G. , “Science, reason, and religion in the age of Newton”, The British journal for the history of science, xi (1978), 164–70; Shapin S. , “Of gods and kings: Natural philosophy and politics in the Leibniz-Clarke disputes”, Isis, lxxii (1981), 187–215; idem, “Social uses of science”, in Rousseau G. S. and Porter R. (eds), The ferment of knowledge: Studies in the historiography of eighteenth-century science (Cambridge, 1980), 93–139.

Plumb J. H. , “The new world of children in eighteenth-century England”, Past and present, no. 67(1975), 64–95, and reprinted in McKendrick N. Brewer J. and Plumb J. H. , The birth of a consumer society: The commercialization of eighteenth-century England (London, 1982).

Carpenter H. and Prichard M. , The Oxford companion to children's literature (Oxford, 1984). An excellent and up-to-date guide to specialist work in this field is available in Alderson's B. recent revision of Darton F. J. H. , Children's books in England: Five centuries of social life, 3rd edn (Cambridge, 1982). Also helpful is Rahn S. , Children's literature: An annotated bibliography of the history and criticism (New York, 1981).

Darton , Children's books; Thwaite M. F. , From primer to pleasure in reading (Boston, 1972). An important exception to the lack of interest in the cultural history of didactic children's books is Pickering's S. F. recent John Locke and children's books in eighteenth-century England (Knoxville, 1981). Despite difficulties in the book's explicit focus on Locke, Pickering provides almost the only serious study of non-fictional juvenile literature during this period, although MacDonald R. K. , Literature for children in England and America from 1646–1774 (Troy, 1982) provides another useful survey. Other kinds of popular science have been similarly neglected for falling between academic boundaries; see Shapin S. and Barnes B. , “Science, nature and control: Interpreting Mechanics' Institutes”, Social studies of science, vii (1977), 31–74.

Shapin S. , “‘Nibbling at the teats of science’: Edinburgh and the diffusion of science in the 1830s”, in Inkster I. and Morrell J. (eds), Metropolis and province: Science in British culture, 1780–1850 (London, 1983), 151–78, p. 151.

Sheets-Pyenson S. , “War and peace in natural history publishing: The Naturalist's library, 1833–1843”, Isis, lxxii (1981), 50–72, p. 51.

Schaffer S. , “Natural philosophy and public spectacle in the eighteenth century”, History of science, xxi (1983), 1–43; Shapin S. , “The audience for science in eighteenth century Edinburgh”, History of science, xii (1974), 95–121.

For Newbery, see Roscoe , John Newbery; Pickering, John Locke (ref. 5); MacDonald , Literature for children (ref. 5); Noblett W. , “John Newbery, publisher extraordinary”, History today, xxii (1972), 265–71; Welsh C. , A bookseller of the last century, being some account of the life of John Newbery, and of the books he published, with a notice of the later Newberys (London, 1885).

Notice of Newtonian system, in Critical review, xi (1761), 255. Welsh, Bookseller (ref. 9), 314, first suggested Goldsmith as the author – although with equally little evidence he also indicated that Blake William might have engraved the copperplates for the 1794 edition. Around 1764, Goldsmith did write a work on science for Newbery, the two volume Survey of experimental philosophy (London, 1776), but this book has no evident verbal parallels with the Newtonian system and takes up many different positions on scientific issues. Moreover, the extant business records contain no mention of a juvenile scientific work. Bibliographical details of all of Newbery's books will be found in Roscoe , John Newbery.

Henry Thomas , quoted in Thackray A. , “Natural knowledge in cultural context: The Manchester model”, American historical review, lxxix (1974), 672–709, p. 690. For Boulton and Watt , see Musson A. E. and Robinson E. , Science and technology in the industrial revolution (Manchester, 1969), 201.

Newtonian system (1761 edn), 3. Hans N. , New trends in education in the eighteenth century (London, 1951); Plumb , “New world of children” (ref. 3); Altick R. D. , The shows of London (Cambridge, Mass., 1978).

[ Boreman Thomas ], A description of three hundred animals (reprinted, New York, 1968); Jameson L. , “Biographical memoir of the late Professor Jameson”, New Edinburgh philosophical journal, lvii (1854), 1–49, p. 5.

Comenius J. , Janua linguarum trilinguis (London, 1670); see Webster C. , The great instauration: Science, medicine, and reform, 1626–1660 (New York, 1976), 108–10.

A museum for young gentlemen and ladies: Or, a private tutor for little masters and misses (London, c. 1750), 55–66, 170–82. For the various editions, Roscoe , John Newhery, 188–9. Tom Telescope quotes a similarly lengthy passage on volcanoes in Newtonian system (1761 edn), 68–69.

The importance of Buffon is stressed in Outram D. , Georges Cuvier: Vocation, science and authority in post-revolutionary France (Manchester, 1984); his continuing importance in England can be gauged from the Juvenile review; or, moral and critical observations on children's books, pt. ii (London, 1817), 48, which cites Hannah More to the effect that Buffon's work is suited to “young ladies” only in abridged form. For Conybeare, see his autobiography in Conybeare F. C. (ed.), Letters and exercises of the Elizabethan schoolmaster, John Conybeare… with notes and a fragment of autobiography by the Very Reverend William Daniel Conybeare… (London, 1905), 114–45; for Chambers, Chambers W. , Memoir of Robert Chambers, with autobiographic reminiscences of William Chambers (Edinburgh, 1872), 62. Study of autobiographies, diaries, and similar records gives an important corrective to much of the secondary literature which tends to equate children's books with children's reading.

Millburn J. R. , Benjamin Martin: Author, instrument-maker, and 'country showman' (Leyden, 1976). For women's science, see Meyer G. D. , The scientific lady in England, 1650–1760 (Berkeley, 1955); Peri T. , “The Ladies' diary or woman's almanack, 1704–1841”, Historia mathematica, vi (1979), 36–53; and Shteir A. B. , “Linnaeus's daughters: Women and British botany”, in Harris B. J. and McNamara J. K. (eds), Women and the structure of society: Selected research from the fifth Berkshire conference on the history of women (Durham, N.C., 1984), 67–73. The role of women as natural history authors is discussed in Shteir A. B. , “Priscilla Wakefield's natural history books”, in Wheeler A. and Price J. (eds), From Linnaeus to Darwin: Commentaries on the history of biology and geology (London, 1985), 29–36. The popularity of juvenile natural history is evident in any bibliography of children's books; good examples are under the heading “Natural science” in St John J. , The Osborne collection of early children's books (Toronto, 1966, 1975), 196–217, 818–43.

Pluche N. A. , Spectacle de la nature (Paris, 1732–51).

Axtell J. L. , “Locke, Newton, and the elements of natural philosophy”, Paedagogica Europaea, i (1965), 235–44; idem (ed.), The educational writings of John Locke (London, 1968).

E.g. Locke J. , Elements of natural philosophy… to which are added some thoughts concerning reading and study for a gentleman (London, ?1750); other imprints are listed in Robinson F. J. G. Averley G. Esslemont D. R. and Wallis P. J. , Eighteenth-century British books: An author union catalogue , iii (Folkestone, 1981), 538. Incidentally, this is a particularly helpful source for the often difficult task of tracking down elusive editions of juvenile literature. Desmaizeaux's edition is Locke J. , A collection of several pieces of Mr. John Locke, never before printed, or not extant in his works (London, 1720).

See Axtell , “Locke, Newton” (ref. 19); Newtonian system (1761 edn). The most substantial previous discussions of the book are in Newtonian system Pickering, John Locke (ref. 5), 79–84, and Plumb , “New world of children” (ref. 3), 301–3.

As Rousseau G. S. comes close to arguing in his important survey, “Science books and their readers”, in Rivers I. (ed.), Books and their readers in eighteenth century England (Leicester, 1982), 197–255. For a discussion of the historiography of Newtonianisms among practising natural philosophers, see Schaffer S. , “Natural philosophy”, in Rousseau and Porter , Ferment of knowledge (ref. 2), 55–91; also Guerlac H. , “Where the statue stood: Divergent loyalties to Newton in the eighteenth century”, in Essays and papers in the history of modern science (Baltimore, 1977), 131–45.

Newtonian system (1761 edn), 126. Discussion of the reception of Locke's educational theories is available in Pickering, John Locke (ref. 5), and in Ezell M. J. M. , “John Locke's images of childhood: Early eighteenth century response to Some thoughts concerning education”, Eighteenth-century studies, xvii (1983), 139–55.

Pickering , John Locke (ref. 5). See also Buck J. D. C. , “The motives of puffing: John Newbery's advertisements 1742–1769”, Studies in bibliography, xxx (1977), 196–210.

Axtell , Educational writings (ref. 19), 69–87.

Newtonian system (1761 edn), 17–32; the quotation is on p. 5.

Newtonian system (1761, 1794 edns).

Nicolson B. , Joseph Wright of Derby, painter of light, ii (London, 1968), 31, 35, plates 54 and 58.

Notice of the Newtonian system, in Monthly review, xxiv (1761), 277.

Schaffer , “Natural philosophy and public spectacle” (ref. 8), has the best discussion with references to earlier studies, notably Millburn, Benjamin Martin (ref. 17).

Newtonian philosophy (1838 edn), 211–14. Notably, the discussion of Newton as hero becomes much more explicit in connection with the overthrow of his theory of light; interest begins to centre on his individual history as elements of his science are explicitly discarded. The changed title of 1838 is also of interest in this regard.

Ryland J. , The preceptor, or counsellor of human life; for the use of British youth. Containing select pieces in natural and moral philosophy, history and eloquence; the lives of Sir Isaac Newton, Rollin, Demosthenes, and Milton (London, 1776). For Boyle , see Dodd W. , The beauties of history; or, pictures of virtue and vice… selected for the instruction and entertainment of youth, 2nd edn (London, 1796), 70.

Newtonian system (1761 edn), 2.

ibid., 6.

ibid., 17–23.

ibid., 97.

ibid., 63–65. The children are here rehearsing a debate discussed in Nicolson M. H. , Mountain gloom and mountain glory: The development of the aesthetics of the infinite (New York, 1963), 72–112, and Davies G. L. , The Earth in decay: A history of British geomorphology (New York, 1968), 27–129. Ray's reasons for the existence of mountains are given in The wisdom of God manifested in the works of Creation (London, 1692), 200–6.

For anti-Newtonianism, see Wilde C. B. , “Hutchinsonianism, natural philosophy and religious controversy in eighteenth century Britain”, History of science, xviii (1980), 1–24.

Newtonian system (1761 edn), 44–45.

ibid., 45–46; quotation at p. 84. The cultural importance of science is emphasized in Porter R. , “Science, provincial culture and public opinion in Enlightenment England”, The British journal for eighteenth-century studies, iii (1980), 20–46, and in Thackray , “Natural knowledge” (ref. 11).

Newtonian system (1761 edn), 32–34.

ibid., 113–14.

ibid., 120–1.

ibid., 123–5. For Sparta, see Rawson E. , The Spartan tradition in European thought (Oxford, 1969), and Pocock J. G. A. , The Machiavellian moment: Florentine political thought and the Atlantic republican tradition (Princeton, 1975). Eighteenth century attitudes towards luxury are characterized in Sekora J. , Luxury: The concept in Western thought, Eden to Smollett (Baltimore, 1977), while science as a form of pastoral retreat is analysed in Outram D. , “The language of natural power: The ‘Eloges’ of Georges Cuvier and the public language of nineteenth century science”, History of science, xvi (1978), 153–78.

The foreign editions are listed in Wallis , Newton and Newtoniana, 102–3; supplementary details on the American editions are in Welch d'Alte A. , A bibliography of American children's books printed prior to 1821 (Philadelphia, 1972), 310–11.

Plumb J. H. , “The first flourishing of children's books”, in Gottlieb G. , Early children's books and their illustration (New York, 1975), xxii; pp. xx–xxii discuss the Newtonian system.

Trimmer S. , An easy introduction to the knowledge of nature and reading the Holy Scripture, adapted to the capacities of children, the fourteenth edition, with considerable additions and improvements (London, 1813), vii.

[ Jones Stephen ], Rudiments of reason: Or, the young experimental philosopher: Being a series of family conferences; in which the causes and effects of the various phenomena that nature daily exhibits, are rationally and familiarly explained (London, 1793); Murray Ann , The sequel to Mentoria; or, the young ladies instructor: In familiar conversations, on a variety of interesting subjects, in which are introduced, lectures on astronomy and natural philosophy, expressed in terms suited to the comprehension of juvenile readers (London, 1799); Gregory Olinthus , Lessons astronomical and philosophical for the amusement and instruction of youth: Being an attempt to explain and account for the most usual appearances in nature in a familiar manner, from established principles. The whole interspersed with moral reflections (London, 1811, first publ. 1793). For Plumb's commercialization of leisure, see McKendrick op. cit. (ref. 3), 265–85. Essays on parallel developments in other areas of culture are available in Walton J. K. and Walvin J. (eds), Leisure in Britain, 1780–1939 (Manchester, 1983).

Edgeworth M. and Edgeworth R. , Practical education (London, 1798); Joyce J. , Scientific dialogues, intended for the instruction and entertainment of young people (London, 1800–5); Armstrong E. V. , “Jane Marcet and her ‘Conversations on chemistry’”, Journal of chemical education, xv (1938), 53–57. I owe this reference to John Servos.

Trimmer S. , Notice of the Newtonian system (1798 edn), Guardian of education, i (1802), 441–2. For biography see Trimmer S. , Some account of the life and writings of Mrs Trimmer, with original letters, and meditations and prayers, selected from her journal (London, 1814).

Metals grow on p. 82 of the Newtonian system (1761 edn), but are missing in the corresponding section of the 1794 edition. Uranus is on pp. 23–24 of the latter, and the relevant engraving of the solar system is updated by 1806. For Captain Cook and the balloon flights, see Newtonian system (1794 edn), 10, 55–56. The changes in science at this time have been extensively discussed in the recent historical literature; e.g. Cannon S. F. , Science in culture: The early Victorian period (New York, 1978), and Porter R. , The making of geology: Earth science in Britain, 1660–1815 (Cambridge, 1977).

Newtonian system (1806 edn).

Lamb to Coleridge, 23 Oct. 1802, in Lucas E. V. (ed.), The works of Charles and Mary Lamb, vi (London, 1905), 252. For a brief anthology of similar comments, see Moon's M. valuable bibliography, John Harris's books for youth 1801–1843: A checklist (Cambridge, 1976), 155–61.

As Pollock L. points out in Forgotten children: Parent-child relations from 1500 to 1900 (Cambridge, 1983), most discussions of attitudes towards childhood are flawed by serious exaggerations of the extent of changes over time, although she also recognizes that certain changes remain worthy of study. Among many works, see Ariès P. , Centuries of childhood: A social history of family life (London, 1962); Stone L. , The family, sex, and marriage in England, 1500–1800 (New York, 1977); and Plumb , “New world of children” (ref. 3).

Mitchell's preface to the 1827 edition is especially revealing. For more general fears about controversy and its relation to popularization during this period, see the following exchange: Inkster I. , “London science and the seditious meetings act of 1817”, The British journal for the history of science, xii (1979), 192–6; Weindling P. , “Science and sedition: How effective were the acts licensing lectures and meetings, 1795–1819?”, ibid., xiii (1980), 139–53; Inkster I. , “Seditious science: A reply to Paul Weindling”, ibid., xiv (1981), 181–7.

Newtonian system (1806 edn), passim. However, discrepancies remain, for even in this edition (p. 82) Lady Caroline has retained her title and diamond earrings.

Newtonian philosophy (1838 edn), 302. This change was almost certainly related to the earlier criticisms of science for children already noted (ref. 53).

See, for example, Thompson E. P. , The making of the English working class (London, 1963); Morrell J. B. , “Professors Robison and Playfair, and the Theophobia Gallica: Natural philosophy, religion and politics in Edinburgh, 1789–1815”, Notes and records of the Royal Society of London, xxvi (1971), 43–63; and Outram D. , “The ordeal of vocation: The Paris Academy of Sciences and the Terror, 1793–95”, History of science, xxi (1983), 251–73. Also relevant to many of the issues discussed in this essay is Kramnick I. , “Children's literature and bourgeois ideology: Observations on culture and industrial capitalism in the later eighteenth century”, Studies in eighteenth-century culture, xii (1983), 11–44.

Trimmer , Guardian of education (ref. 50), i (1802), 442.

Juvenile review (ref. 16), 63–64.