The Creation of a Victorian Myth: The Historiography of Spectroscopy

James F. A. J. L. , “The establishment of spectro-chemical analysis as a practical method of qualitative analysis, 1854–1861”, Ambix, xxx (1983), 30–53.

Bunsen R. and Kirchhoff G. , “Chemische Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen”, Poggendorff Annalen der Physik und Chemie, cx (1860), 161–89. Translated into English as “Chemical analysis by spectrum-observations”, Philosophical magazine, xx (1860), 89–109.

Sutton M. A. , “Spectroscopy and the chemists: A neglected opportunity?”, Ambix, xxiii (1976), 16–26.

McGucken W. , Nineteenth century spectroscopy: Development of the understanding of spectra 1802–1897 (Baltimore, 1969), especially pp. 4–10.

Sutton M. A. , Spectroscopy and the structure of matter: A study in the development of physical chemistry (D.Phil thesis, University of Oxford, 1972).

Sutton M. A. , “Sir John Herschel and the development of spectroscopy in Britain”, The British journal for the history of science, vii (1974), 42–60.

Stokes G. G. , On light as a means of investigation (London, 1885).

ibid., 35.

von Fraunhofer J. , “Bestimmung des Brechungs- und Farbenzerstreuungs- Vermögens verschieder Glasarten, in Bezug auf die Vervollkommnung achromatischer Fernröhre”, Denkschriften der Königliche Baierischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu München, v (1814–15 [pub. 1817]), 193–226. Translated into English as “On the refractive and dispersive power of different species of glass, in reference to the improvement of achromatic telescopes, with an account of the lines or streaks which cross the spectrum”, Edinburgh philosophical journal, ix (1823), 288–99; x (1824), 26–40.

In 1802 William Hyde Wollaston had observed a few of the ‘Fraunhofer lines’ but had interpreted them as being the dividing lines between what he considered to be the four primary colours of the spectrum. Wollaston W. H. , “A method of examining refractive and dispersive powers by prismatic reflexion”, Philosophical transactions, xcii (1802), 365–80. There is no evidence that Fraunhofer knew of this work.

See Williams Mari E. W. , Attempts to measure annual stellar parallax: Hooke to Bessel (Ph.D. thesis, University of London (Imperial College), 1981), ch. 6.

Brewster D. , “Description of a monochromatic lamp for microscopical purposes, &c, with remarks on the absorption of the prismatic rays by coloured media”, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, ix (1822), 433–44.

Melvill T. , “Observations on light and colours”, Essays and observations, physical and literary, ii (1756), 12–90.

Herschel J. F. W. , “On the absorption of light by coloured media, and on the colours of the prismatic spectrum exhibited by certain flames; with an account of a ready mode of determining the absolute dispersive power of any medium by direct experiment”, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, ix (1822), 445–60.

Sutton , op. cit. (ref. 3), 16.

Talbot W. H. F. , “Some experiments on coloured flames”, Edinburgh journal of science, v (1826), 77–81.

Herschel J. F. W. , “Light”, Encyclopedia metropolitana, ii (1828), 341–586. This was completed on 12 December 1827.

ibid., art. 524.

Sutton , op. cit. (ref. 3), 16.

Herschel , op. cit. (ref. 17), art. 418.

ibid., art. 524.

ibid.

Talbot W. H. F. , “On the flame of lithia” in “Facts relating to optical science. No. I”, Philosophical magazine, iv (1834), 112–14, p. 114.

Turner E. , “On the means of detecting lithia in minerals by the blowpipe”, Edinburgh journal of science, iv (1826), 113–17.

Sutton , op. cit. (ref. 3), 16.

Turner E. , Elements of chemistry (1st edn, Edinburgh, 1827).

Sutton , op. cit. (ref. 3), 16.

See Edinburgh journal of science, v (1826), 1.

Fresnel A. J. , “De la Lumière”, in Supplement to Thomson T. , Système de chimie (Paris, 1822), reprinted in Oeuvres complètes d'Augustin Fresnel (3 vols, Paris, 1866–70), ii, 3–146, p. 140.

For an explicit statement of this position see Herschel J. F. W. , Preliminary discourse on the study of natural philosophy (London, 1831), 36–37.

For a detailed discussion of this see Cantor G. N. , “The reception of the wave theory of light in Britain: A case study illustrating the role of methodology in scientific debate”, Historical studies in the physical sciences, vi (1975), 109–32, and Optics after Newton (Manchester, 1983).

Whewell W. , Astronomy and general physics considered with reference to natural theology (London, 1833), chs 16 and 17.

Airy G. B. , Mathematical tracts on … the undulatory theory of optics (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1831), p. iv.

Powell Baden , “Remarks on Mr Barton's reply, respecting the inflection of light”, Philosophical magazine, iii (1833), 412–17.

Cannon S. F. , Science in culture: The early Victorian period (New York, 1978), ch. 1.

[ Brewster D. ], review of Whewell, op. cit. (ref. 32), Edinburgh review, lviii (1834), 422–57.

For a full discussion of this see Morse E. W. , Natural philosophy, hypotheses, and impiety: Sir David Brewster confronts the undulatory theory of light (Ph.D. thesis, University of California (Berkeley), 1972).

Brewster D. , “Observations on the absorption of specific rays, in reference to the undulatory theory of light”, Philosophical magazine, ii (1833), 360–3.

Herschel J. F. W. , “On the absorption of light by coloured media, viewed in connexion with the undulatory theory”, Philosophical magazine, iii (1833), 401–12. Talbot W. H. F. , “On the nature of light”, Philosophical magazine, vii (1835), 113–18. Whewell W. , “Suggestions respecting Sir John Herschel's remarks on the theory of the absorption of light by coloured media”. Report of the British Association , (1834), 550–2. Airy G. B. , “Remarks on Sir David Brewster's paper ‘On the absorption of specific rays &c’”, Philosophical magazine, ii (1833), 419–24. von Wrede F. J. , “Försök att härleda Ljusets absorbtion från Undulations-Teorien”, Konglia Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar , (1834), 318–53. Translated into English as “Attempt to explain the absorption of light according to the undulatory theory”, Taylor's scientific memoirs, i (1836), 477–502. For a discussion of this debate see James F. A. J. L. , “The Debate on the nature of the absorption of light, 1830–1835: A core-set analysis”. History of science, xxi (1983), 335–68.

Brewster D. , “Observations on the lines of the solar spectrum, and those produced by the Earth's atmosphere, and by the action of nitrous acid gas”, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xii (1834), 519–30, p. 519. Talbot W. H. F. , “On prismatic spectra” in “Facts relating to optical science. No. III”, Philosophical magazine, ix (1836), 1–4, p. 3.

Daniell J. F. , An introduction to the study of chemical philosophy (2nd edn, London, 1843), especially pp. 336, 385 and 388. Miller W. A. , “Experiments and observations on some cases of lines in the prismatic spectrum produced by the passage of light through coloured vapours and gases, and from certain coloured flames”. Philosophical magazine, xxvii (1845), 81–91. For a discussion of this work see James F. A. J. L. , The early development of spectroscopy and astrophysics (Ph.D. thesis, University of London (Imperial College), 1981), 76–84.

For a discussion of this see James F. A. J. L. , “The study of spark spectra, 1835–1859”, Ambix, xxx (1983), 137–62.

Wheatstone C. , “An account of some experiments to measure the velocity of electricity and the duration of electric light”. Philosophical transactions, cxxiv (1834), 583–91.

Wheatstone C. , “On the prismatic decomposition of electrical light”, Report of the British Association, (1835), part 2, 11–12.

Faraday M. , Diary (7 vols and index, London, 1932–36), 3 November 1835; ii, entry 2554.

Faraday M. , “Experimental researches in electricity, Twelfth series, On induction”, Philosophical transactions, cxxviii (1838), 83–123, art. 1421.

ibid., art. 1406.

Masson A.-P. , “Études de photométrie électrique”, Annales de chimie, xiv (1845), 129–95; xxx (1850), 5–55; xxxi (1851), 295–326; vl (1855), 385–454.

Ångström A. J. , “Optiska Undersökningar”, Konglia Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar, (1854), 335–60. Translated into English as “Optical researches”. Philosophical magazine, ix (1855), 327–42.

Plücker J. , “Ueber die Einwirkung des Magneten auf die elektrischen Entlandung in verdünnten Gasen”, Poggendorff Annalen der Physik und Chemie, ciii (1858), 88–106, 151–7; “Fortgesetzte Beobachtungen über die elektrische Entladung durch gasverdünnte Räume”, ibid., civ (1858), 113–28; “Ueber einen neuen Gesichtspunkt, die Einwirkung des Magneten auf den elektrischen Strom betreffend”, ibid., civ (1858), 622–30; “Fortgesetzte Beobachtungen über die elektrische Entladung”, ibid., cv (1858), 67–84; “Fortgesetzte Beobachtungen über die elektrische Entladung in gasverdünnten Räumen”, ibid., cvii (1859), 77–113; “Ueber die Constitution der elektrischen Spectra der verschiedenen Gase und Dämpfe”, ibid., cvii (1859), 497–539; “Nachtrag zu der Abhandlung über die Constitution der elektrischen Spectra der verschiedenen Gase und Dämpfe”, ibid., cvii (1859), 638–43. The first five articles of this series were translated into English as “On the action of the magnet upon the electrical discharge in rarefied gases”, Philosophical magazine, xvi (1858), 119–35, “Observations on the electrical discharge through rarefied gases”, ibid., xvi (1858), 408–18, “Observations of the electric discharge”, ibid., xviii (1859), 1–20. See also his “Abstract of a series of papers and notes concerning the electric discharge through rarefied gases and vapours”, Proceedings of the Royal Society, x (1860), 256–69.

Elkana Y. , The discovery of the conservation of energy (London, 1974). Kuhn T. , “Energy conservation as an example of simultaneous discovery”, in Clagett M. (ed.), Critical problems in the history of science (Madison, 1969), 321–56. Smith C. W. , “Natural philosophy and thermodynamics: William Thomson and the ‘Dynamical theory of heat’”, The British journal for the history of science, ix (1976), 293–319.

Stokes G. G. , “On the change of refrangibility of light”, Philosophical transactions, cxlii (1852), 463–562. Ångström, op. cit. (ref. 49). For a discussion of this work see James F. A. J. L. , “The conservation of energy, theories of absorption and resonating molecules, 1851–1854: G. G. Stokes, A. J. Ångström and W. Thomson”, Notes and records of the Royal Society of London, xxxviii (1983), 79–107.

For a discussion of this problem see James F. A. J. L. , “Thermodynamics and sources of solar heat, 1846–1862”, The British journal for the history of science, xv (1982), 155–81.

Thomson W. , “On the mechanical energies of the solar system”, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xxi (1854), 63–80. Helmholtz H. , Ueber die Wechselwirkung der Naturkräfte und die darauf bezüglichen neusten Ermittelungen der Physik (Königsberg, 1854). Translated into English as “On the interaction of natural forces”, Philosophical magazine, xi (1856), 489–518. Thomson accepted Helmholtz's solar theory in “Physical considerations regarding the possible age of the Sun's heat”, Report of the British Association, (1861), part 2, 27–28.

Thomson to Stokes , 2 March 1854, University Library Cambridge (ULC) Add. MS 7656, K64. Stokes to Thomson, 7 March 1854, ULC Add. MS 7342, S367.

Gladstone J. H. , “On the use of the prism in qualitative analysis”, Quarterly journal of the Chemical Society, x (1858), 79–91, p. 79.

Gladstone , op. cit. (ref. 56). Crookes W. , “Examination of the spectrum produced by coloured flames”, in D'Albe E. E. F. , The life of Sir William Crookes (London, 1923), 26–27. Swan W. , “On the prismatic spectra of the flames of compounds of carbon and hydrogen”, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xxi (1857), 411–29. Cartmell R. , “On a photochemical method of recognizing the non-volatile alkalies and alkaline earths”, Philosophical magazine, xvi (1858), 328–33.

See Crookes to Miller W. A. , 14 September 1861, in D'Albe, op. cit. (ref. 57), 67. For a detailed discussion of Crookes's spectral work see James F. A. J. L. , “Of ‘medals and muddles’. The context of the discovery of thallium: William Crookes's early spectro-chemical work”, Notes and records of the Royal Society of London, xxxix (1984), 85–90.

Bunsen R. , “Löthrohversuche”, Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, cxi (1859), 257–76. Translated into English as “Blowpipe experiments”. Philosophical magazine, xviii (1859), 513–21.

Sutton , op. cit. (ref. 3), 17.

Gladstone , op. cit. (ref. 56), 80.

James , op. cit. (ref. 1), 34–35.

Sutton , op. cit. (ref. 3), 17.

Cartmell , op. cit. (ref. 57), 333.

James , op. cit. (ref. 1).

Bunsen and Kirchhoff , op. cit. (ref. 2).

Kirchhoff G. , “Ueber das Zusammenhang zwischen Emission und Absorption von Licht und Wärme”, Monatsberichte der Königlichen Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, (1859), 783–7.

Kirchhoff G. , “Ueber das Sonnenspektrum”, Verhandlungen des Naturhistorisch-medizinischen Vereins zu Heidelberg, (1859), 251–5.

Bunsen R. and Kirchhoff G. , “Chemische Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen”, Poggendorff Annalen der Physik und Chemie, cxiii (1861), 337–81. Translated into English as “Chemical analysis by spectrum-observations”, Philosophical magazine, xxii (1861), 329–49, 498–510.

The first mention of the possibility of the detection of an hitherto unknown chemical element (caesium) by spectro-chemical methods occurred in Bunsen and Kirchhoff, op. cit. (ref. 2, Philosophical magazine), 107, but it was not confirmed until Bunsen R. , “Ueber ein neues, dem Kalium nahestehendes Metall”, Journal für praktische Chemie, lxxx (1860), 477–80. Bunsen published on rubidium in “Ueber ein fünftes der Alkaligruppe angehörendes Element”, ibid., lxxxiii (1861), 198–200. Translated into English as “On a fifth element belonging to the alkali group”, Chemical news, iii (1861), 357. For a fuller discussion of the discovery of these elements see James , op. cit. (ref. 1), 42–43.

Kirchhoff , op. cit. (ref. 68), dated 28 October 1859 and “Ueber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien”, Monatsberichte der Königlichen Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin , (1859), 662–5, dated 20 October 1859. Translated into English as “On Fraunhofers lines” in Stokes G. G. , “On the simultaneous emission and absorption of rays of the same definite refrangibility; being a translation of a portion of a paper by Leon Foucault M., and of a paper by Professor Kirchhoff”, Philosophical magazine, xix (1860), 193–7, pp. 195–6.

Bunsen to Roscoe, 13 November 1859, Deutsches Museum, München HS 930, translated into English in Roscoe H. E. , The life and experiences of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (London, 1906), 81–82.

Sutton , op. cit. (ref. 3), 21. Sutton's emphases.

ibid., 16.

ibid., 17.

Ibid., 19–21.

ibid., 21.

Ibid .; Stokes , op. cit. (ref. 7), 35.

Kirchhoff G. , “Zur Geschichte der Spectral-Analyse und der Analyse der Sonnenatmosphäre”, Poggendorff Annalen der Physik und Chemie, cxviii (1863), 94–111. Translated into English as “Contributions towards the history of spectrum analysis and of the analysis of the solar atmosphere”, Philosophical magazine, xxv (1863), 250–62, p. 256.

[ Crookes] W. , “Early researches on the spectra of artificial light from different sources”, Chemical news, iii (1861), 184–5, p. 184.

Roscoe H. E. , “On Bunsen and Kirchhoff's spectrum observations”, Chemical news, iii (1861), 153–5, 170–2.

[ Crookes ], op. cit. (ref. 80), 184.

This was a local report of the Dublin British Association meeting that I have not traced, and Wheatstone, op. cit. (ref. 44), reprinted in Chemical news, iii (1861), 185.

Wheatstone C. , “On the prismatic decomposition of the electric, voltaic, and electro-magnetic sparks”, Chemical news, iii (1861), 198–201. Wheatstone may have told Bunsen and Kirchhoff directly of his priority when they visited England in 1862. See Roscoe , op. cit. (ref. 72), 73.

See Arnold H. J. P. , William Henry Fox Talbot: Pioneer of photography and man of science (London, 1977), 285–9.

Talbot , op. cit. (ref. 16), Chemical news, iii (1861), 261–2; “On a method of obtaining homogeneous light of great intensity”, Philosophical magazine, iii (1833), 35, Chemical news, iii (1861), 262; op. cit. (ref. 23), Chemical news, iii (1861), 262; “On the flame of cyanogen” in “Facts relating to optical science. No. I”, Philosophical magazine, iv (1834), 112–14, p. 114, Chemical news, iii (1861), 263; op. cit. (ref. 40) and “Spectra of various galvanic flames” in “Facts relating to optical science. No. III”, Philosophical magazine, ix (1836), 1–4, pp. 3–4, Chemical news, iii (1861), 263.

See James , op. cit. (ref. 58).

Miller , op. cit. (ref. 41), Chemical news, iii (1861), 304–7.

[ Crookes] W. , “Early researches on the spectra of artificial light”, Chemical news, iii (1861), 303–4.

See Crookes to Williams C. H. G. , 11 February 1861, in James F. A. J. L. , “The letters of William Crookes to Charles Hanson Greville Williams, 1861–2: The detection and isolation of thallium”, Ambix, xxviii (1981), 131–57, Letter 2.

For Crookes's work on thallium see James , op. cit. (ref. 58).

Roscoe H. E. , “On the application of the induction coil to Steinheil's apparatus for spectrum analysis”, Chemical news, iv (1861), 118–22, p. 119.

ibid.

Roscoe to Gladstone, 10 May 1861, Royal Society Gladstone Papers.

ibid., Roscoe's emphasis.

Miller W. A. , “The new method of spectrum analysis”, Chemical news, iv (1861), 159–61, p. 160.

Miller W. A. , “On spectrum analysis”, a lecture given to the Pharmaceutical Society, Chemical news, v (1862), 201–3, 214–18.

Kirchhoff , op. cit. (ref. 79).

The paper in which Foucault described his work was published under the heading “Physique. Lumière électrique” in L'Institut, xvii (1849), 44–46. Stokes translated various portions into English in op. cit. (ref. 71), 194. At the end of the translation Stokes added that Kirchhoff had “rediscovered” the phenomenon discovered by Foucault (p. 196). For a discussion of Foucault's work see James , op. cit. (ref. 42), 144–6.

Stewart based his claim on “An account of some experiments on radiant heat, involving an extension of Prevost's theory of exchanges”, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xxii (1858), 1–20. He made his claim to priority in “On the theory of exchanges, and its recent extension”, Report of the British Association , (1861), part 1, 97–108. Stewart replied to Kirchhoff, op. cit. (ref. 79), with “Reply to some remarks by G. Kirchhoff in his paper ‘On the history of spectrum analysis’”, Philosophical magazine, xxv (1863), 354–60.

Siegel D. M. , “Balfour Stewart and Gustav Kirchhoff: Two independent approaches to ‘Kirchhoff's radiation law’”, Isis, lxvii (1976), 565–600.

[ Crookes ], op. cit. (ref. 89).

Kirchhoff , op. cit. (ref. 79, Philosophical magazine), 255.

E. Frankland in the discussion of Roscoe, op. cit. (ref. 92), Chemical news, iv (1861), 131.

Stokes G. G. , “On the discrimination of organic bodies by their optical properties”, Chemical news, ix (1864), 212–14, 220–2, p. 212.

See for example Stokes to Roscoe, 7 February 1862, ULC Add. MS 7656, R795, and Stokes to Thomson, 5 July 1871, ULC Add. MS 7656, NB21, Letter 42.

See for example Thomson, op. cit. (ref. 54, Report of the British Association), 27, and Thomson W. , “Presidential address”. Report of the British Association (1871), lxxiv-cv, pp. xcv–xcvi.