How Did Darwin Arrive at His Theory? The Secondary Literature to 1982

Darwin C. R. , On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life (London, 1859).

Darwin C. R. , The variation of animals and plants under domestication… (2 vols, London, 1868), i, Introduction.

Haeckel E. , The history of creation of the development of the Earth and its inhabitants by the action of natural causes: A popular exposition of the doctrine of evolution in general, and of that of Darwin, Goethe, and Lamarck in particular (London, 1876; first German edn, Berlin, 1868).

Butler S. , Evolution old and new: Or, the theories of Buffon, Dr. Erasmus Darwin, and Lamarck, as compared with that of Mr. Charles Darwin (London, 1879).

Allen G. , Charles Darwin (London, 1887).

Bettany G. T. , Life of Charles Darwin (London, 1887).

Darwin F. (ed.), The life and letters of Charles Darwin, including an autobiographical chapter (3 vols, London, 1887).

Huxley T. H. , “Obituary notices of fellows deceased [Charles Darwin]”, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, xliv (1888), i–xxv.

Osborne H. F. , From the Greeks to Darwin: An outline of the development of the evolution idea (New York and London, 1894).

Poulton E. B. , Charles Darwin and the theory of natural selection (New York, 1896).

Darwin F. Seward A. C. (eds), More letters of Charles Darwin: A record of his work in a series of hitherto unpublished letters (2 vols, London, 1903).

The Darwin- Wallace Celebration held on Thursday, 1st July, 1908, by the Linnean Society of London (London, 1908). (This contains some reflections by Wallace on the events surrounding the establishment of the Darwin/Wallace theory.).

Rádl E. , Geschichte der biologische Theorien… (2 vols, Leipzig, 1905–9; English edn, Oxford, 1930).

Poulton E. B. , Charles Darwin and the origin of species (London, 1909).

Darwin F. (ed.), The foundations of the origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844 (Cambridge, 1909).

Judd J. W. , “Darwin and geology”, in Seward A. C. (ed.), Darwin and modern science (Cambridge, 1910), 337–84.

Judd J. W. , The coming of evolution (Cambridge, 1910).

Vickers H. M. , “An apparently hitherto unnoticed ‘anticipation’ of the theory of natural selection”, Nature, lxxxv (1910–11), 510–11.

Judd J. W. , “Charles Darwin's earliest doubts concerning the immutability of species”, Nature, lxxxviii (1911–12), 8–12.

Sarton G. , “Discovery of the theory of natural selection”, Isis, xiv (1930), 133–54.

Rostand J. , L'évolution des espèces: Histoire des idées transformistes (Paris, 1931).

Barlow N. (ed.), Charles Darwin's diary of the voyage of H.M.S. “Beagle” (Cambridge, 1933).

Barlow N. , “Charles Darwin and the Galapagos Islands”, Nature, cxxxvi (1935), 391 and 534–5.

Cowles T. , “Malthus, Darwin and Bagehot: A study in the transference of a concept”, Isis, xxxi (1936), 341–8.

Sandow A. , “Social factors in the origin of Darwinism”, Quarterly review of biology, xiii (1938), 315–26.

Zirkle C. , “Natural selection before the ‘Origin of species’”, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, lxxxiv (1941), 71–125.

Barlow N. (ed.), Charles Darwin and the voyage of the Beagle (London, 1945).

Shryock R. H. , “The strange case of Wells' theory of natural selection (1813): Some comments on the dissemination of scientific ideas”, in Montagu M. F. Ashley (ed.), Studies and essays in the history of science and learning offered in homage to George Sarton on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday 31 August 1944 (New York, 1946), 197–207.

Huxley J. S. , “Charles Darwin: The decisive years”, Nature, clvii (1946), 536–8.

Lack D. , Darwin's finches: An essay on the general biological theory of evolution (Cambridge, 1947).

Jespersen P. H. , “Charles Darwin and Dr. Grant”, Lychnos, xi (1948–49), 159–67.

Tasch P. , “Darwin and the forgotten Mr. Lonsdale”, Geological magazine, lxxxvii (1950), 292–6.

Eiseley L. C. , “Charles Darwin”, Scientific American, clxciv (1956), 62–72.

de Beer G. , Charles Darwin: Lecture on a master mind (London, 1958).

de Beer G. , “The Darwin-Wallace centenary”, Endeavour, xvii (1958), 61–76.

Eiseley L. C. , Darwin's century: Evolution and the men who discovered it (New York, 1958).

Darlington C. D. , “The origin of Darwinism”, Scientific American, cc (1959), 60–66.

Barrett P. H. , “From Darwin's unpublished notebooks”, The centennial review of arts and sciences, iii (1959), 376–90.

Eiseley L. C. , “Charles Darwin, Edward Blyth and the theory of natural selection”, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, ciii (1959), 94–158.

Darlington P. J. , “Darwin and zoogeography”, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, ciii (1959), 307–19.

Crombie A. C. , “Darwin's scientific method”, Actes du IX^e Congrès International d'Histoire des Sciences, Barcelona, Madrid, 1–7 Septembre 1959, i (Barcelona, n.d.), 354–62.

Feibleman J. K. , “Darwin and scientific method”, Tulane studies in philosophy, viii (1959), 3–14.

de Beer G. (ed.), “Darwin's journal”, Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) historical series, ii (1959), 1–21.

Mayr E. , “Darwin and evolutionary theory in biology”, in Meggers B. (ed.), Evolution and anthropology: A centennial appraisal (Washington, 1959), 3–12.

Sobol S. L. , “Evolusionnaya koncepcia Charlza Darvina na piervyh etapah eyo formirovanya”, Annaly biologii, i (1959), 13–34 (in Russian with English summary).

Kondratiuk E. M. , “Ch. Darvin-Tvorets' materialistichnoi teorii rozvitku organichnogo svitu”, Ukrain'skyi botanichnyi zhurnal, xvi (1959), 3–14 (in Ukrainian). (I am grateful to Barry Lewis for furnishing me with a translation of a section of this paper.).

Dobzhansky T. , “Blyth, Darwin, and natural selection”, American naturalist, xciii (1959), 204–6.

Stauffer R. C. , “‘On the origin of species’: An unpublished version”, Science, cxxx (1959), 1449–56.

Himmelfarb G. , Darwin and the Darwinian Revolution (London, 1959).

Smith S. , “The origin of the ‘Origin’”, Impulse, xi (1959), 2–14.

Smith S. , “Evolution: Two books and some marginalia”, Victorian studies, iii (1959–60), 109–14.

Smith S. , “The origin of ‘The origin’ as discerned from Charles Darwin's notebooks and his annotations in the books he read between 1837 and 1842”, Advancement of science, xvi (1960), 391–401.

Hardin G. , “The competitive exclusion principle”, Science, cxxxi (1960), 1292–7.

Stauffer R. C. , “Ecology in the long manuscript version of Darwin's Origin of species and Linnaeus' Oeconomy of nature”, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, civ (1960), 235–41.

“Darwin's notebooks on transmutation of species, Part I”, edited with an introduction and notes by de Beer Gavin Sir , Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) historical series, ii (1960), 23–73.

Idem, “Part II”, ibid., 75–118.

Idem, “Part III”, ibid., 119–50.

Idem, “Part IV”, ibid., 151–83.

“Darwin's notebooks on transmutation of species: Addenda and corrigenda”, edited with notes by de Beer Gavin Sir Rowlands M. J. , Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) historical series, ii (1961), 185–200.

de Beer G. , “The origins of Darwin's ideas on evolution and natural selection”, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, series B: Biological sciences, clv (1961–62), 321–38.

Gruber H. E. Gruber V. , “The eye of reason: Darwin's development during the Beagle voyage”, Isis, liii (1962), 186–200.

Croizat L. , Space, time, form: The biological synthesis (Caracas, 1962), ch. 8.

“Darwin's ornithological notes”, edited with an introduction, notes and appendix by Barlow Nora , Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) historical series, ii (1963), 201–78.

Vorzimmer P. , “Charles Darwin and blending inheritance”, Isis, liv (1963), 371–90.

de Beer G. , Charles Darwin: Evolution by natural selection (London, 1963).

de Beer G. , “How Darwin came by his theory of natural selection”, New scientist, xxi (1964), 216–18.

de Beer G. , “Other men's shoulders”, Annals of science, xx (1964), 303–22.

Théodoridès J. , “Humboldt et Darwin”, Actes du XIe Congrès International d'Histoire des Sciences … 24–31 Août 1965, v (Warsaw, 1968), 87–92.

Smith S. , “The Darwin collection at Cambridge with one example of its use: Charles Darwin and Cirripedes”, Actes du Xle Congrès International d'Histoire des Sciences 24–31 Août 1965, v (Warsaw, 1968), 96–100.

Vorzimmer P. J. , “Charles Darwin's ecology and its influence upon his theory”, Isis, lvi (1965), 148–55.

Eiseley L. C. , “Darwin, Coleridge, and the theory of unconscious creation”, Daedalus, xciv (1965), 588–602.

Gruber H. E. , “Pensée créatrice et vitesse du changement adaptif: Le développement de la pensée de Darwin”, in Bresson F. de Montmollin M. (eds), Psychologie et épistémologie génétiques: Thèmes Piagétiens (Paris, 1966), 407–21.

“Darwin's notebooks on transmutation of species. Part VI: Pages excised by Darwin”, edited by de Beer Gavin Sir Rowlands M. J. Skramovsky B. M. , Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) historical series, iii (1967), 129–76.

Egerton F. N. , “The concept of competition in nature before Darwin”, XII^e Congrès international d'Histoire des Sciences Paris 1968: Actes, viii (Paris, 1971), 41–46.

Limoges C. , “Darwin, Milne-Edwards et le principe de divergence”, ibid., 112–15.

Egerton F. N. , “Studies of animal population from Lamarck to Darwin”, Journal of the history of biology, i (1968), 225–59.

Young R. M. , “Malthus and the evolutionists: The common context of biological and social theory”, Past and present, xliii (1969), 109–45.

Vorzimmer P. J. , “Darwin's Questions about the breeding of animals (1839)”, Journal of the history of biology, ii (1969), 269–81.

Vorzimmer P. J. , “Darwin, Malthus and the theory of natural selection”, Journal of the history of ideas, xxx (1969), 527–42.

Ghiselin M. T. , The triumph of the Darwinian method (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1969).

Limoges C. , La sélection naturelle: Étude sur la première constitution d'un concept (1837–1859) (Paris, 1970).

Limoges C. , “Darwinism et adaptation”, Revue des questions scientifiques, xxxi (1970), 353–74.

Egerton F. N. , “Humboldt, Darwin, and population”, Journal of the history of biology, iii (1970), 325–60.

de Beer G. , “The evolution of Charles Darwin [review of Ghiselin's Triumph of the Darwinian method“], New York review of books, xv (1970), 31–35.

Ghiselin M. T. , “The individual in the Darwinian Revolution”, New literary history, iii (1971), 113–34.

Young R. M. , “Evolutionary biology and ideology: Then and now”, Science studies, i (1971), 177–206.

Young R. M. , “Darwin's metaphor: Does nature select?”, The monist, lv (1971), 442–503.

Herbert S. , “Darwin, Malthus and selection”, Journal of the history of biology, iv (1971), 209–17.

Egerton F. N. , “Darwin's analysis of biological competition”, Proceedings of XIIIth International Congress of the History of Science Moscow August 18–24, 1971, ix (Moscow, 1974), 71–77.

Wells K. D. , “Sir William Lawrence (1783–1867): A study of pre-Darwinian ideas on heredity and variation”, Journal of the history of biology, iv (1971), 319–62.

Mayr E. , “Open problems of Darwin research [essay review of reprint of Darwin's Life and letters]”, Studies in history and philosophy of science, ii (1971), 273–80.

Egerton F. N. , “Darwin's method or methods? [essay review of Ghiselin's Triumph of the Darwinian method]”, Studies in history and philosophy of science, ii (1971), 281–6.

Beddall B. G. , “Wallace, Darwin and Edward Blyth: Further notes on the development of evolution theory”, Journal of the history of biology, v (1972), 153–8.

Mayr E. , “The nature of the Darwinian Revolution”, Science, clxxvi (1972), 981–9.

Gale B. G. , “Darwin and the concept of a struggle for existence: A study in the extrascientific origins of scientific ideas”, Isis, lxiii (1972), 321–44.

Young R. M. , “Darwin and the division of labour”, The listener, lxxxviii (1972), 202–5.

Huntley W. B. , “David Hume and Charles Darwin”, Journal of the history of ideas, xxxiii (1972), 457–70.

Wells K. D. , “William Charles Wells and the races of man”, Isis, lxiv (1973), 215–25.

Beddall B. G. , “‘Notes for Mr. Darwin’: Letters to Charles Darwin from Edward Blyth at Calcutta: A study in the process of discovery”, Journal of the history of biology, vi (1973), 69–95.

Wells K. D. , “The historical context of natural selection: The case of Patrick Matthew”, Journal of the history of biology, vi (1973), 225–58.

Sibatani A. , “Antiscience as expressed by a professional scientist: A non-European viewpoint”, in Modern science and moral values: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Unity of the Sciences, Tokyo, November 18–21, 1973 (Tokyo, 1973), 553–68. (This paper is not chiefly concerned with the origin of Darwin's theory, but it contains the claim, and the Conference discussion thereof, that the British navy was one of the ‘causal factors’ leading to Darwin's discoveries.).

Egerton F. N. , “Changing concepts of the balance of nature”, Quarterly review of biology, xlviii (1973), 322–50.

Ruse M. , “The nature of scientific models: Formal v material analogy”, Philosophy of the social sciences, iii (1973), 63–80.

Ruse M. , “The value of analogical models in science”, Dialogue, xii (1973), 246–53.

Hull D. L. , “Charles Darwin and nineteenth-century philosophies of science”, in Giere R. N. Westfall R. S. (eds), Foundations of scientific method: The nineteenth century (Bloomington, Indiana and London, 1973), 114–32.

Wood R. J. , “Robert Bakewell (1725–1795) pioneer animal breeder and his influence on Darwin”, Folia Mendeliana, viii (1973), 231–42.

Young R. M. , “The historiographic and ideological contexts of the nineteenth-century debate on man's place in nature”, in Teich M. Young R. (eds), Changing perspectives in the history of science: Essays in honour of Joseph Needham (London, 1973), 344–438.

Bowler P. J. , “Darwin's concept of variation”, Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences, xxiv (1974), 196–212.

Herbert S. , “The place of man in the development of Darwin's theory of transmutation. Part 1: To July 1837”, Journal of the history of biology, vii (1974), 217–58.

Grinnell G. , “The rise and fall of Darwin's first theory of transmutation”, Journal of the history of biology, vii (1974), 259–73.

Schwartz J. S. , “Charles Darwin's debt to Malthus and Edward Blyth”, Journal of the history of biology, vii (1974), 301–18.

Gruber H. E. Barrett P. H. , Darwin on man: A psychological study of scientific creativity … together with Darwin's early and unpublished notebooks (New York, 1974).

Vorzimmer P. J. , “An early Darwin manuscript: The ‘Outline and draft of 1839’”, Journal of the history of biology, viii (1975), 191–217.

Ruse M. , “Darwin's debt to philosophy: An examination of the influence of the philosophical ideas of John F. W. Herschel and William Whewell on the development of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution”, Studies in history and philosophy of science, vi (1975), 159–81.

Ruse M. , “Charles Darwin and artificial selection”, Journal of the history of ideas, xxxvi (1975), 339–50.

Greene J. C. , “Reflections on the progress of Darwin studies”, Journal of the history of biology, viii (1975), 243–73.

Biggins D. R. , “Biology and ideology”, Science education, lx (1976), 567–78.

Cannon W. F. , “The Whewell-Darwin controversy”, Journal of the Geological Society of London, cxxxii (1976), 377–84.

Eng E. , “The confrontation between reason and imagination: The example of Darwin”, Diogenes, no. 95 (1976), 58–67.

Bowler P. J. , “Darwin, Malthus and the concept of struggle”, Journal of the history of ideas, xxxvii (1976), 631–50.

Ghiselin M. T. , “Two Darwins [Erasmus and Charles]: History versus criticism”, Journal of the history of biology, ix (1976), 121–32.

Egerton F. N. III , “Darwin's early reading of Lamarck”, Isis, lxvii (1976), 452–6.

Vorzimmer P. J. , “The Darwin reading notebooks (1838–1860)”, Journal of the history of biology, x (1977), 107–53.

Allan M. , Darwin and his flowers: The key to natural selection (London, 1977).

Colp R. , “Charles Darwin and the Galapagos”, New York State journal of medicine, lxxvii (1977), 262–7.

Mayr E. , “Darwin and natural selection: How Darwin may have discovered his highly unconventional theory”, American scientist, lxv (1977), 321–8.

Schweber S. S. , “The origin of the Origin revisited”, Journal of the history of biology, x (1977), 229–316.

Thagard P. R. , “Darwin and Whewell”, Studies in history and philosophy of science, viii (1977), 353–6.

Herbert S. , “The place of man in the development of Darwin's theory of transmutation. Part II”, Journal of the history of biology, x (1977), 155–227.

Kottler M. J. , “Charles Darwin's biological species concept and theory of geographic speciation: The transmutation notebooks”, Annals of science, xxxv (1978), 275–98.

Schweber S. S. , “The genesis of natural selection — 1838: Some further insights”, Bioscience, xxviii (1978), 321–6.

Browne J. , “The Charles Darwin-Joseph Hooker correspondence: An analysis of manuscript resources and their use in biography”. Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History, viii (1978), 351–66.

Manier E. , The young Darwin and his cultural circle: A study of influences which helped shape the language and logic of the first drafts of the theory of natural selection (Dordrecht and Boston, 1978).

Schweber S. S. , “The young Darwin”, Journal of the history of biology, xii (1979), 175–92.

Ospovat D. , “Darwin after Malthus”, Journal of the history of biology, xii (1979), 211–30.

Keynes R. D. , “Darwin and the Beagle”, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, cxxiii (1979), 323–35.

Kleiner S.A. , “Feyerabend, Galileo and Darwin: How to make the best out of what you have — Or think you can get”, Studies in history and philosophy of science, x (1979), 285–309.

Colp R. , “Charles Darwin's vision of organic nature: ‘A force like a hundred thousand wedges’”, New York State journal of medicine, lxxix (1979), 622–9.

Sulloway F. J. , “Geographical isolation in Darwin's thinking: The vicissitudes of a crucial idea”, Studies in history of biology, iii (1979), 23–65.

Ruse M. , The Darwinian revolution: Science red in tooth and claw (Chicago and London, 1979).

Gould S. J. , “Darwin's deceptive memories”, New scientist, lxxxv (1980), 577–9.

Colp R. , “‘I was born a naturalist’: Darwin's 1838 notes about himself”, Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences, xxxv (1980), 8–39.

“The Red Notebook of Charles Darwin”, edited with an introduction and notes by Herbert Sandra , Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) historical series, vii (1980), 1–164.

Kohn D. , “Theories to work by: Rejected theories, reproduction, and Darwin's path to natural selection”, Studies in history of biology, iv (1980), 67–170.

Barrett P. H. , “Preface” to Metaphysics, materialism, and the evolution of mind: Early writings of Charles Darwin, transcribed and edited by Paul H. Barrett with a commentary by Howard E. Gruber (Chicago, 1980), xv–xxiv.

Manier E. , “History, philosophy and sociology of biology: A family romance”, Studies in history and philosophy of science, xi (1980), 1–24.

Browne J. , “Darwin's botanical arithmetic and the ‘principle of divergence’, 1854–1858”, Journal of the history of biology, xiii (1980), 53–89.

Tallmage J. , “From chronicle to quest: The shaping of Darwin's ‘Voyage of the Beagle’”, Victorian studies, xxiii (1980), 325–46.

Schweber S. S. , “Darwin and the political economists: Divergence of character”, Journal of the history of biology, xiii (1980), 195–289.

Gruber H. E. , “The evolving systems approach to creative scientific work: Charles Darwin's early thought”, in Nickles T. (ed.), Scientific discovery: Case studies (Dordrecht, Boston and London, 1980), 113–30.

Ruse M. , “Ought philosophers consider scientific discovery? A Darwin case-study”, Scientific discovery (ref. 150), 131–49.

Manier E. , “Darwin's language and logic”, Studies in history and philosophy of science, xi (1980), 305–23.

Ospovat D. , “God and natural selection: The Darwinian idea of design”, Journal of the history of biology, xiii (1980), 169–94.

Kleiner S. A. , “Problem solving and discovery in the growth of Darwin's theories of evolution”, Synthèse, xlvii (1981), 119–62.

Richardson R. A. , “Biogeography and the genesis of Darwin's ideas of transmutation”, Journal of the history of biology, xiv (1981), 1–41.

Parodiz J. J. , Darwin in the New World (Leiden, 1981).

Secord J. , “Nature's fancy: Charles Darwin and the breeding of pigeons”, Isis, lxx (1981), 163–86.

Sheets-Peyenson S. , “Darwin's data: His reading of natural history journals, 1837–1842”, Journal of the history of biology, xiv (1981), 231–48.

Kohn D. , “On the origin of the principle of diversity”, Science, ccxiii (1981), 1105–8 (review of Brackman A. C. , A delicate arrangement: The strange case of Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace (New York, 1980)).

Ospovat D. , The development of Darwin's theory: Natural history, natural theology, and natural selection, 1838–1859 (Cambridge, 1981).

Brent P. , Charles Darwin: A man of enlarged curiosity (London, 1981).

Sulloway F. J. , “Darwin and his finches: The evolution of a legend”, Journal of the history of biology, xv (1982), 1–53.

Thomson K. S. Rachootin S. P. , “Turning points in Darwin's life”, Biological journal of the Linnean Society, xvii (1982), 23–37.

Rudwick M. J. S. , “Charles Darwin in London: The integration of public and private science”, Isis, lxxiii (1982), 186–206.

Ghiselin M. T. , “The intellectual path to natural selection”, New scientist, xciv (1982), 156–9.

Parshall K. H. , “Varieties as incipient species: Darwin's numerical analysis”, Journal of the history of biology, xv (1982), 191–214.

Beatty J. , “What's in a word? Coming to terms in the Darwinian Revolution”, Journal of the history of biology, xv (1982), 215–39.

Browne J. , “Essay review: New developments in Darwin studies?”, Journal of the history of biology, xv (1982), 275–80.

Sulloway F. J. , “Darwin's conversion: The Beagle voyage and its aftermath”, Journal of the history of biology, xv (1982), 325–96.

Sulloway F. J. , “The Beagle collections of Darwin's finches (geospizinae)”, Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) zoology series, xliii (1982), 49–94.

Kohn D. Smith S. Stauffer R. C. , “New light on The foundations of the origin of species: A reconstruction of the archival record”, Journal of the history of biology, xv (1982), 419–42.

Mayr E. , The growth of biological thought: Diversity, evolution, and inheritance (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1982).

Gale B. G. , Evolution without evidence: Charles Darwin and The origin of species (Brighton, 1982).

Hodge M. J. S. , “Darwin and the laws of the animate part of the terrestrial system (1835–1837): On the Lyellian origins of his zoonomical explanatory programme”, Studies in history of biology, vi (1982), 1–106. (This paper is marked “copyright 1983”.).

Gruber H. E. , “History and creative work: From the most ordinary to the most exalted”, Journal of the history of the behavioral sciences, xix (1983), 4–14.

Keegan R. T. Gruber H. E. , “Love, death, and continuity in Darwin's thinking”, Journal of the history of the behavioral sciences, xix (1983), 15–30.

Churchill F. B. , “Darwin and the historian”, Biological journal of the Linnean Society, xviii (1982), 45–68.

A few major items arising from the 1982 centenary have not appeared at the time of writing (1983). This ‘time-lag’ has therefore partially suppressed the visible effect of the centenary on the graphs of Figures 1 and 2.

See, for example, Crane D. , Invisible colleges: Diffusion of knowledge in scientific communities (Chicago, 1972), 171ff.

Darwin F. (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 7), i, 83.

Marx K. , “Letter to F. Engels”, 18 June 1862, in Marx K. Engels F. , Selected correspondence 1846–1895 (3rd edn, Moscow, 1975), 119–20.

Rádl , op. cit. (ref. 13, 1930), 18.

Keynes J. M. , “The end of laissez-faire”, pamphlet published by Hogarth Press, July 1926, based on the Sydney Ball Lecture, Oxford, November 1924, in The collected writings of John Maynard Keynes, ix: Essays in persuasion (London and Basingstoke, 1972), 272–94, p. 276.

Allen , op. cit. (ref. 5), 67, citing Haeckel, op. cit. (ref. 3), 137–8.

Huxley , op. cit. (ref. 8).

Darwin F. (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 7), i, 276. (This was subsequently republished in “Darwin's journal” (ref. 43), 7.).

This contained an ‘expurgated’ version of Darwin's Autobiography. For the full version, see Barlow N. (ed.), The autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809–1882: With original omissions restored… (London, 1958).

See refs 55 to 58.

Darwin excavated the giant South American mammalian fossils in 1832.

Darwin F. (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 15), xiv.

Judd , op. cit. (refs 16, 17 and 19).

Darwin F. , op. cit. (ref. 15), xvi.

Darwin F. (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 11), ii, 146.

Darwin himself spoke of “transmutation”, not “evolution” and it is something of an anachronism to ascribe the term ‘evolution’ to him. The word ‘evolution’ has numerous connotations for us, notably the idea of progress, and to suppose that Darwin was, on the Beagle and through the years 1836–38, searching for an evolutionary theory, as understood today, can be misleading. In his early thinking about species change, he envisaged sudden alterations in time — Something that is quite foreign to most modern ‘evolutionary’ theory. Darwin did not use the word ‘evolution’ in The origin, though Lyell did so in his Principles in relation to Lamarck's transmutation theory. For discussion of the etymology of the term ‘evolution’, see Bowler P. J. , “The changing meaning of ‘evolution’”, Journal of the history of ideas, xxxvi (1975), 95–114.

Barlow , op. cit. (ref. 23).

Ibid. , 391. See also [ Darwin C. R. ], op. cit. (ref. 63), 262.

See refs 24 and 25.

Bagehot W. , Physics and politics: Or, thoughts on the application of the principle of “natural selection” and “inheritance” to political society (London, 1872).

Engels F. , “Letter to P. L. Lavrov”, 12 November 1875, in Marx and Engels, op. cit. (ref. 181), 283–5.

See refs 65, 77, 86 and 107. Writing in 1959 (ref. 46), the Ukrainian, E. M. Kondratiuk, maintained that the nineteenth century natural sciences developed as a result of the combined productive output of the advanced capitalist countries. This was associated with colonial expansion; and so Darwin's Beagle voyage, with its intellectual product, the transmutation theory, was intimately associated with capitalist expansion. However, S. I. Sobol (ref. 45), also writing in 1959, wished to deny that Malthus provided Darwin with anything of significance for the construction of his theory. Sir Gavin de Beer has pointed out that some Russians have been unwilling to credit the achievement of Darwin (of whom they approved) to Malthus (whom they regarded as a reactionary). See de Beer G. , “200 years of Malthus: The gloomy cleric's gift to Darwin”, New scientist, xxix (1966), 423–4.

Bloor D. , Knowledge and social imagery (London, 1976).

Crombie , op. cit. (ref. 41).

Feibleman , op. cit. (ref. 42).

This had previously exercised the attention of C. Zirkle in his very thorough survey of possible precursors, published in 1941 (see ref. 26).

Eiseley , op. cit. (ref. 39).

Darlington , op. cit. (ref. 37).

Spencer H. , “Art. IV. — A theory of population, deduced from the general law of animal fertility”, Westminster review, lvii (1852), 468–501. (This has sometimes been represented as an anticipation of Darwinian natural selection theory, but of limited scope, being propounded in terms of human population pressures. But Spencer seems to have been supposing that population pressure would be a stimulus to self-help, and so to intellectual progress. He envisaged an eventual cessation of the whole process, when man was fully adapted to his new civilized condition, and limited his own fertility.).

See McKinney H. L. , Wallace and natural selection (New Haven and London, 1972), 342.

L. C. Eiseley's several papers on this matter were published posthumously as Darwin and the mysterious Mr. X: New light on the evolutionists (New York, 1979).

See, for example, the review of Schwartz J. S. , Isis, lxxi (1980), 517; also refs 93 and 111.

Mayr , op. cit. (ref. 44).

See refs 126 and 172.

For example, by Fleeming Jenkin, in his celebrated review of The origin, which is known to have caused Darwin to think deeply about the matter. See [Jenkin] F. , “The origin of species”, North British review, xlvi (1867), 277–318.

Hull D. L. , “The metaphysics of evolution”, The British journal for the history of science, iii (1967), 309–37; idem, Darwin and his critics: The reception of Darwin's theory of evolution by the scientific community (Cambridge, Mass., 1973), 67–77.

Hodge , op. cit. (ref. 174), 94.

Stauffer , op. cit. (ref. 54).

Vorzimmer , op. cit. (ref. 70).

Egerton , op. cit. (ref. 76).

I.e., the subsequently published material referred to in refs 55 to 58 above.

Smith , op. cit. (ref. 52).

De Beer , op. cit. (ref. 60). (De Beer had previously discussed the matter in a lecture on Darwin at the British Academy (ref. 34).).

As is well known, Darwin used to cut out the most important bits and use them for writing up his major published work.

The ‘wedge’ metaphor was of great importance to Darwin. It persisted until the sixth edition of On the origin of species. On the wedging metaphor, see Colp , op. cit. (ref. 138).

De Beer , op. cit. (ref. 66), 218.

De Beer , op. cit. (ref. 67), 308.

Ibid., 309.

De Beer , op. cit. (ref. 66), 218.

De Beer , op. cit. (ref. 67), 321.

De Beer , op. cit. (ref. 60), 329.

Keynes J. M. , The collected writings…, x: Essays in biography (London, 1972), 100–1.

Eiseley , op. cit. (ref. 36), 183.

Théodoridès , op. cit. (ref. 68).

Cf. ref. 344.

Egerton , op. cit. (ref. 83).

Cannon S. F. , Science in the early Victorian period (New York, 1978), ch. 3.

Smith , op. cit. (ref. 83).

McLeay W. S. , Horae entomologicae: Or essays on the annulose animals (London, 1819–21).

See ref. 344.

Vorzimmer , op. cit. (ref. 79).

Young , op. cit. (ref. 77).

Vorzimmer drew particular attention to a letter written to Otto Zacharias in 1877 in which Darwin stated that: “I did not become convinced that species were mutable until, I think, two or three years had elapsed [since the opening of the “Transmutation notebooks” in July, 1837]” ( Darwin F. Seward (eds), op. cit. (ref. 11), i, 367). But this letter, of Darwin's old age, is of doubtful historical significance. Maybe, at that late date, Darwin didn't regard himself as a ‘convinced’ transmutationist until his theory was well established on the principle of natural selection. That is to say, biological transmutation was not a ‘fact’ for Darwin until it was satisfactorily situated within a biological theory.

One must comment, however, that Darwin himself demonstrated no ‘eureka’ effect in the (excized portions of the) “Transmutation notebooks”. And it is now known that Darwin had a fair idea of the contents of Malthus's book before he read it. It was, after all, common knowledge in Darwin's day. However, this does not prove that Darwin received no essential stimulus from Malthus.

Young , op. cit. (ref. 77).

Ibid., 130.

Young , op. cit. (ref. 96).

We have seen above that Engels, long before, saw a two-way traffic of ideas here between natural history and the social world.

Limoges , op. cit. (ref. 81).

Ibid., 13.

Kohn , op. cit. (ref. 144). See also below.

Herbert , op. cit. (ref. 88).

Gale , op. cit. (ref. 95).

“Notebook A” is concerned with geological matters and at the time of writing (1983) is still unpublished, though its publication has been announced by Sandra Herbert.

Gruber Barrett , op. cit. (ref. 112), 236–381.

Ibid., 136. (The idea had some analogy to the doctrines of Lamarck. See Oldroyd D. R. , Darwinian impacts: An introduction to the Darwinian Revolution (Kensington, Milton Keynes and Atlantic Highlands, 1980), 34.).

Kohn , op. cit. (ref. 144). However, other commentators such as Kleiner (ref. 154) and Hodge (ref. 174) have found merit in Gruber's emphasis on the importance of Darwin's “monad theory”.

Gruber Barrett , op. cit. (ref. 112), 117.

Later investigators of Darwin's work on divergence have been inclined to see significant differences between the fully-fledged principle and the early idea of branching. See ref. 344.

Herbert , op. cit. (ref. 109).

This has now been published by Herbert. See ref. 143.

Herbert , op. cit. (ref. 143), 17.

See ref. 186.

Oldroyd , op. cit. (ref. 254), 45.

Grinnell , op. cit. (ref. 110).

Vorzimmer , op. cit. (ref. 113).

Kohn , op. cit. (ref. 171).

Ruse , op. cit. (ref. 114).

See, for example, Losee J. , An introduction to the philosophy of science (London, 1972), 115–20.

Herschel J. F. W. , Preliminary discourse on the study of natural philosophy (London, 1830).

Ruse , op. cit. (ref. 114), 171.

Ruse , op. cit. (ref. 115).

Cannon , op. cit. (ref. 115).

Young , op. cit. (ref. 77).

Bowler , op. cit. (ref. 120).

Herbert , op. cit. (ref. 88), 217.

Neither Young nor Gale put the matter in quite such simplistic terms. It has, however, been a widely-held view amongst writers of the Left. For example, J. D. Bernal, in his Science in history (3rd edn, 1965), described Darwin's theory of natural selection as a “reflection of the free competition of the full capitalist era” (iv, 1233). As we saw above, such a view was proposed by Marx soon after the publication of The origin. It has attracted many adherents since.

Bowler , op. cit. (ref. 120), 649.

Gale , op. cit. (ref. 95), 338.

Manier , op. cit. (ref. 133), 82.

Herbert , op. cit. (ref. 129).

He did so more, however, in geology than in zoology. His professional standing was higher in geology. See also Rudwick , op. cit. (ref. 164).

[ Darwin C. R. ], op. cit. (ref. 55), 101.

For my didactic exposition of this, see my op. cit. (ref. 254), 184–5.

Young R. M. has regarded associationist psychology as an essential background assumption to the participants in the nineteenth century evolutionary debate. See Young R. M. , “The role of psychology in the nineteenth-century evolutionary debate”, in Henle M. Jaynes J. Sullivan J. J. (eds). Historical conceptions of psychology (New York, 1973), 180–204.

Schweber , op. cit. (ref. 127).

Manier , op. cit. (ref. 133).

Gould , op. cit. (ref. 141).

Manier , op. cit. (ref. 133).

This included men such as Lamarck or Adam Smith who were dead at the time that Darwin was notetaking; and also men such as Lyell, who became Darwin's intimate friend.

Darwin F. (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 7), i, 69.

Manier , op. cit. (ref. 133), citing Wordsworth's The excursion, Book VII, ll. 999–1005.

Manier , op. cit. (ref. 133), 82–83.

Kottler , op. cit. (ref. 130).

Grinnell , op. cit. (ref. 110).

Kohn , op. cit. (ref. 144).

Lyell C. , Principles of geology, being an attempt to explain the former changes of the Earth's surface by reference to causes now in operation…, ii (London, 1832), 129. (While stating Brocchi's hypothesis, Lyell himself rejected it.).

[ Darwin C. R. ], op. cit. (ref. 55), 44, 46.

See above at ref. 250.

Sulloway , op. cit. (ref. 169). See also 162 and 170.

Barlow , op. cit. (ref. 23).

Herbert , op. cit. (ref. 109).

[ Darwin C. R. ], op. cit. (ref. 63), 262.

See Sulloway , op. cit. (ref. 162), and op. cit. (ref. 170).

Lack , op. cit. (ref. 30), 115. (However, Lack did state that “observations on… [the finches] were obscured by his [Darwin's] unfortunate mixing of specimens…”.).

Indeed, since some of the type specimens in the British Museum were given wrong Galapagos locations, there was at one time some argument amongst zoologists as to whether a little evolutionary change had occurred since Darwin's visit to the islands!.

The career of Darwin, on his return to London, in relation to the city's scientific ‘experts’, is most ably represented graphically by Rudwick, op. cit. (ref. 164).

De Beer , op. cit. (ref. 43), 7.

When discussing the ostriches of the Pampas, see above.

Herbert , op. cit. (ref. 143), 66.

Ibid., 7.

The significance of biogeography was reaffirmed by R. A. Richardson in his 1981 paper (op. cit., ref. 155).

Hodge , op. cit. (ref. 174).

Ibid., 5.

See also ref. 194.

See Ospovat D. , “Lyell's theory of climate”, Journal of the history of biology, x (1977), 317–39.

This point had been adumbrated by Kohn, but without such detailed consideration of Darwin's field evidence.

This can happen where chimeras are formed between the host and the grafted plant tissue; and over several generations the host plant tissue may gradually ‘swamp’ that of the grafted buds.

Barlow (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 63), 262.

Hodge , op. cit. (ref. 174), 60.

Ibid., 70. (Hodge, it should be noted, did not regard the opening of “Notebook B” — Which is headed ZOONOMIA — As a “Transmutation notebook”, but as a “Zoonomical sketch”, i.e. one seeking to determine the “laws of life”.).

[ Darwin C. R. ], op. cit. (ref. 55), 44.

Ibid., 46.

McKinney , op. cit. (ref. 208), 141. The case against Darwin has been stated more forthrightly in Brackman A. C. , A delicate arrangement: The strange case of Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace (New York, 1980). But Brackman's case seems to have been effectively demolished. Kohn, op. cit. (ref. 159).

Darwin F. (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 7), i, 84.

Ospovat , op. cit. (ref. 160).

See Cook R. , The tree of life: Symbol of the centre (London, 1974).

[ Chambers R. ], Vestiges of the natural history of creation (London, 1844).

Darwin C. R. , The variation of animals and plants under domestication (2 vols, London, 1868), ii, 75–80.

Stauffer R. C. (ed.), Charles Darwin's Natural selection, being the second part of his big species book written from 1856 to 1858 (Cambridge, 1975), 233–4.

Ospovat , op. cit. (ref. 160), 176 (citing a manuscript from the Cambridge Darwin archives).

It has recently been shown (Parshall, op. cit. (ref. 166)) that the data that Darwin collected did not provide a satisfactory warrant for his conclusions. But he thought that they did.

Stauffer (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 328), 229.

Ospovat , op. cit. (ref. 160), 180–1.

Ibid., 181.

Stauffer (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 326), 233.

Schweber , op. cit. (ref. 149).

Edwards H. Milne , Introduction à la zoologie générale (Paris, 1851).

Schweber , op. cit. (ref. 149), 250–1, translating from the article “Organisation” in Milne Edwards's Dictionnaire.

McCulloch J. R. , The principles of political economy with a sketch of the rise and progress of the science (2nd edn, London, 1830).

de Sismondi J. C. L. , Political economy and the philosophy of government (London, 1847).

Schweber , op. cit. (ref. 149), 286.

Ibid. See also de Candolle A. P. “Géographie botanique”, Dictionnaire des sciences naturelles, xviii (Paris, 1820), 359–422, p. 384.

Ospovat , op. cit. (ref. 160), 267. (Ospovat made the same comment in relation to the work of Limoges, who had also written on the relationship between Darwin's thought and that of Milne Edwards.).

Poincaré J. H. , Science and method (New York, n.d.), 46–63.

This paper has concerned itself with the secondary literature to 1982. But we may notice here an important subsequent publication: Browne J. , The secular ark: Studies in the history of biogeography (New Haven and London, 1983). Following Ospovat, Browne has argued that a substantial change occurred in Darwin's theory between the Essay of 1844 and the Origin. In the earlier text, Darwin supposed that variation was largely a product of changing environmental circumstances, which, according to Lyellian geology, could also supposedly account for geographical distributions through hypothetical land bridges, etc. But his lengthy study of barnacles convinced him of the widespread occurrence of intraspecies variation. Responding to this, he engaged in his studies on “botanical arithmetic”, which led to the “principle of divergence proper”. This would give a plausible account of the significance of the barnacle work for Darwin's thinking. His later theorizing and experimentation involved consideration of mechanisms for the dispersal of living organisms other than along pathways provided by land bridges, etc. Browne has emphasized that from the first construction of his theory Wallace always assumed the ubiquity of spontaneous variation. It was only brought home to Darwin by his barnacle work. (Earlier, Ghiselin (op. cit. (ref. 80), ch. 5) laid emphasis on Darwin testing his ‘evolutionary’ theory by means of the barnacle work. The observed gradations of form would certainly have offered evidence favourable to the theory.).

See ref. 241.

Darwin F. , op. cit. (ref. 7), i, 83.

Tallmage , op. cit. (ref. 148).

Darwin C. R. , op. cit. (ref. 2), 9–10.

Kohn , op. cit. (ref. 144), 149–54.

See, for example, refs 104 and 154.

On this, see the remarks of Hodge, op. cit. (ref. 174), 94.

See, for example, Kohn , op. cit. (ref. 171).

British Museum (Natural History) book catalogue 1984 (London, n.d.), 18–19. (The editors are announced as: Barrett P. H. Gautrey P. J. Herbert S. Kohn D. Smith S. ,).

See Herbert , op. cit. (ref. 143), 29. (The editors are stated to be: Burkhardt F. Smith S. Kohn D. Montgomery W. ,).

Richards E. , “Darwin and the descent of woman”, in Oldroyd D. Langham I. (eds), The wider domain of evolutionary thought (Dordrecht, London and Boston, 1983), 57–111.

See Colp R. , To be an invalid: The illness of Charles Darwin (Chicago and London, 1977).

Franzosa J. , “Darwin and Melville: Why a tortoise?”, American imago, xxxiii (1976), 361–79.

Kohn D. (ed.), The Darwinian heritage (forthcoming, Princeton University Press).

Carr E. H. , What is history? (Harmondsworth, 1964), 30.