The History of Science and the History of Geography: Interactions and Implications

Aay Henry , “Textbook chronicles: Disciplinary history and the growth of geographic knowledge”, in Blouet Brian (ed.), The origins of academic geography in the United Stales (Hamden, Conn., 1981), 291–301.

Standard treatments in this vein include Dickinson Robert E. Howarth O. J. R. , The making of geography (Oxford, 1933); Freeman Thomas W. , A hundred years of geography (Chicago, 1961); Dickinson Robert E. , The makers of modern geography (New York, 1969); James Preston E. , All possible worlds: A history of geographical ideas (Indianapolis, 1972).

Bowen Margarita , Empiricism and geographical thought: From Francis Bacon to Alexander von Humboldt (Cambridge, 1981).

Bowen had already interpreted Humboldt's thought as prefiguring the evolutionary metaphysics of Teilhard de Bowen Chardin. M. J. , “Mind and nature: The physical geography of Alexander von Humboldt”, Scottish geographical magazine, lxxxvi (1970), 222–33.

Porter Roy , review of Bowen Margarita , Empiricism and geographical thought , in The British journal for the history of science, xvi (1983), 301–2.

Wright J. K. , “A plea for the history of geography”, Isis, viii (1925), 477–91.

Thus, for example, Hill Christopher , Intellectual origins of the English revolution (London, 1972, first pub. 1965), 14.

In his review of William A. S. Serjeant's five-volume Geologists and the history of geology: An international bibliography from the origins to 1978 (London, 1980), Roy Porter laments the absence of any reference to Glacken's Traces, a work which, he maintains, “brilliantly documents scientific attitudes towards the Earth, its economy and its history, up to the end of the eighteenth century”. Porter Roy , “The bibliography of geology”, History of science, xix (1981), 224–6.

In particular Davies Gordon L. , The earth in decay: A history of British geomorphology (London, 1969); Chorley R. J. Dunn A. J. Beckinsale R. P. , The history of the study of landforms or the development of geomorphology, vol. i: Geomorphology before Davis (London, 1964), vol. ii: The life and work of William Morris Davis (London, 1973).

See, for instance, Livingstone D. N. , “Some methodological problems in the history of geographical thought”, Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, lxx (1979), 226–31; Stoddart D. R. , “Ideas and interpretation in the history of geography”, in Stoddart (ed.). Geography, ideology and social concern (Oxford, 1981), 1–7; Claval Paul , “Epistemology and the history of geographical thought”, in Stoddart (ed.), op. cit., 227–41; Berdoulay Vincent , “The contextual approach”, ibid., 8–16; Aay , “Textbook chronicles” (ref. 1).

For various perspectives see Harvey Milton E. Holly Brian P. , “Paradigm philosophy and geographic thought”, in Harvey Holly (eds), Themes in geographic thought (London, 1981), 11–37; Johnston R. J. , “Paradigms and revolutions or evolution? Observations on human geography since the second world war”, Progress in human geography, ii (1978), 189–206; Stoddart D. R. , “The paradigm concept and the history of geography”, in Stoddart (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 10), 70–80; Buttimer Anne , “On people, paradigms, and ‘progress’ in geography”, ibid., 81–98.

Berdoulay Vincent , “Professionnalisation et institutionnalisatgon de la géographie”, Organon, xiv (1980), 149–56; Granö Olavi , “External influence and internal change in the development of geography”, in Stoddart (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 10), 17–36; Capel Horacio , “Institutionalization of geography and strategies for change”, ibid., 37–69.

Lochhead Elspeth , “Scotland as the cradle of modern academic geography in Britain”, Scottish geographical magazine, xcvii (1981), 98–107; idem, “On socio-scientific circles and the history of geography”, Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Institute of British Geographers, January 1982.

This is evidenced by the success of the series edited by Freeman T. W. Pinchemel Philippe , Geographers: Biobibliographical studies (London), on behalf of the Working Party on the History of Geographical Thought of the International Geographical Union and the International Union of the History of Science.

Dunbar Gary S. , “Credentialism and careerism in American geography 1890–1915”, in Blouet (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 1), 71–88; Koelsch William A. , “The New England Meteorological Society, 1884–96”, in ibid., 89–104.

See Gregory Derek , Ideology, science and human geography (London, 1978).

Glick Thomas F. , “History and philosophy”, Progress in human geography, in press.

I have particularly in mind Fichman Martin , “Wallace: Zoogeography and the problem of land bridges”, Journal of the history of biology, x (1977), 45–63; Nelson Gareth , “From Candolle to Croizat: Comments on the history of biogeography”, Journal of the history of biology, xi (1978), 269–305; Richardson R. Alan , “Biogeography and the genesis of Darwin's ideas on transmutation”, Journal of the history of biology, xiv (1981), 1–41; Blaisdell Muriel , “Natural theology and nature's disguises”, Journal of the history of biology, xv (1982), 163–89; Browne Janet , The secular ark: Studies in the history of biogeography (New Haven, 1983).

Jordanova L. J. Porter Roy , “Introduction”, in Jordanova Porter (eds), Images of the earth: Essays in the history of the environmental sciences (Chalfont St Giles, 1979), v-xx.

Cannon Susan Faye , Science in culture: The early Victorian period (New York, 1978), ch. 3. 21. Büttner M. , “The significance of the Reformation for the reorientation of geography in Lutheran Germany”, History of science, xvii (1979), 139–69.

See Forbes Eric . “The international organization of the history of science: A personal view”, Isis, lxxiii (1982), 552–7.

Thus, for example, Porter's review of Bowen's Empiricism and geographical thought (ref. 5); Glick's Thomas F. essay review of works by Blouet, Bowen, Johnston and Stoddart under the title “In search of geography”, Isis, lxxiv (1983), 92–97; Gregg De Young's review of Stoddart's Geography for The British journal for the history of science, xvi (1983), 301; Clarke's John I. review of Berry B. J. L. (ed.), The nature of change in geographical ideas, in Annals of science, xxxvii (1980), 700; and Ilse Andrews's review of Hanno Beck, Carl Ritter , in Isis, lxxii (1981), 120–1.

Glick , “History and philosophy” (ref. 17).

Glacken Clarence J. , Traces on the Rhodian shore: Nature and culture in Western thought from ancient times to the end of the eighteenth century (Berkeley, 1967), 375–428.

Tuan Yi-Fu , The hydrologic cycle and the wisdom of God: A theme in geoteleology (Toronto, 1968; Department of Geography, Research Paper No. 1).

I discuss this in Livingstone David N. , “Natural theology and Neo-Lamarckism: The changing context of nineteenth century geography in the United States and Great Britain”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, lxxiv (1984), 9–28.

For example, Young R. M. , “Natural theology, Victorian periodicals and the fragmentation of a common context”, in Chant Colin Fauvel John (eds), Darwin to Einstein: Historical studies on science and belief (Harlow, 1980), 69–107; Cannon Walter , “The bases of Darwin's achievement: A revaluation”, Victorian studies, v (1961), 109–34; Cannon Walter , “The problem of miracles in the 1830's”, Victorian studies, iv (1960), 5–32; Yeo Richard , “William Whewell, natural theology and the philosophy of science in mid-nineteenth century Britain”, Annals of science, xxxvi (1979), 493–516.

Thus Dov Ospovat, The development of Darwin's theory: Natural history, natural theology, and natural selection, 1838–1859 (Cambridge, 1981). Also idem, “Perfect adaptation and ideological explanation: Approaches to the problem of the history of life in the mid-nineteenth century”, Studies in the history of biology, ii (1978), 33–56; idem, “God and natural selection: The Darwinian idea of design”, Journal of the history of biology, xiii (1980), 169–94.

Bowler Peter J. , “Darwinism and the argument from design: Suggestions for a reevaluation”, Journal of the history of biology, x (1977), 29–43.

Discussions of Somerville's contributions may be found in Baker J. N. L. , “Mary Somerville and geography in England”, Geographical journal, cxi (1948), 207–22; Patterson Elizabeth C. , “Mary Somerville”, British journal for the history of science, iv (1969), 311–19; idem, “The case of Mary Somerville: An aspect of nineteenth century science”, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, cxviii (1974), 269–75; Sanderson Marie , “Mary Somerville: Her work in physical geography”, Geographical review, lxiv (1974), 410–20.

Murchison R. I. Sir , “Presentation of the Royal Awards”, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, xxxix (1869), cxxxiii–cxxxiv.

Somerville Mary , Physical geography (London, 4th edn, 1858), 339, 486, 493.

Thomson John , A new general atlas, consisting of a series of geographical designs, on various projections exhibiting the form and component parts of the globe: And a collection of maps and charts, delineating the natural and political divisions of the empires, kingdoms, and stales of the world (Edinburgh, 1821), xxiii.

See Williams Frances Leigh , Matthew Fontaine Maury, scientist of the sea (New Brunswick, N.J., 1963); Smith Waldo (ed.), Matthew Fontaine Maury memorial symposium on Antarctic research (Geophysical monograph, no. 7, 1962).

Maury Matthew Fontaine , “On the navigation of Cape Horn”, American journal of science and arts, xxvi (1834), 54–63.

Maury M. F. , The physical geography of the sea (New York, 1855), 68, 92–94.

Ibid., 53–54. Maury Later delivered the inaugural address at the laying of the cornerstone of the new University of the South in 1860. Thoroughly infused with biblical literalism, it has been described by David Stoddart as “pure teleology”. See Stoddart D. R. , “Darwin's influence on the development of geography in the United States”, in Blouet (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 1), 265–78. It is perhaps not surprising, therefore, that Maury has been hailed as a sort of precursor of ‘creation science’ in the United States. See Meyer John R. , “The life and philosophy of Matthew Fontaine Maury, pathfinder of the sea”, Creation Research Society quarterly, xix (1982), 91–100.

Jordan William Leighton , The ocean: Its tides and currents and their causes (London, 1873), 267. Jordan's own work was thoroughly ‘scientific’ in style, but he did conclude it with the affirmation (pp. 343–4): “Man's intellect may incline to feelings of triumphant pride as it reflects upon its victorious career in the progress of knowledge and civilization, or looks forward with hope and trust to greater triumphs yet to come; but, when contemplating these rolling worlds thus sweeping onwards towards an unknown goal, it is compelled to bow before the transcendent majesty of God.”.

I have discussed this in “Natural theology” (ref. 27).

Mill H. R. , “Geography”, Encyclopaedia Britannica (London, Nth edn, 1929), x, 139–53, p. 147.

Ibid., 147–8.

I am thinking here particularly of Swinburne Richard , The existence of God (Oxford, 1979); and Bowker John , “Did God create this universe?”, in Peacocke A. R. (ed.), The sciences and theology in the twentieth century (London, 1981), 98–126.

Guyot Arnold , The earth and man: Lectures on comparative physical geography in its relation to the history of mankind (New York, 1897, first pub. 1849), 82.

Davis W. M. , “The progress of geography in the United States”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, xiv (1924), 159–215, p. 165.

Thus, for example, James Preston , All possible worlds (ref. 2), 193.

Dana James D. , “Biographical memoir of Arnold Guyot”, Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for 1887 (Washington, 1889), 712.

Guyot Arnold Henry , Creation, or the biblical cosmogony in the light of modern science (New York, 1884).

Guyot Arnold Henry , “Cosmogony and the Bible; or, the biblical account of creation in the light of modern science”, History, essays, orations, and other documents of the Sixth General Conference of the Evangelical Alliance held in New York, 2–12 October 1873, ed. by Schaff Philip Prime S. Irenaeus (New York, 1874), 276–87.

Biographical sketches of Winchell may be found in Davenport F. Garvin , “Alexander Winchell: Michigan scientist and educator”, Michigan history, xxxv (1951), 185–201; Yoder H. S. Jr , “Winchell, Alexander”, Dictionary of scientific biography, xiv (New York, 1976), 439–40.

See discussions of his geological contributions in Merrill George P. , Contributions to a history of American State Geological and Natural History Surveys (Washington, 1920; Smithsonian Institution United States National Museum, Bulletin 109), 203–12; idem, The first one hundred years of American geology (New Haven, 1924), 393–6, 438–9.

Winchell A. , Creation: The work of one intelligence and not the product of physical forces (Ann Arbor, 1858), 4. The previous year he had also elaborated on this theme in his tellingly entitled address, Theologico-geology, or the teachings of scripture illustrated by the conformation of the earth's crust (Ann Arbor, 1857).

Winchell , Creation, 13.

Winchell Alexander , Sketches of creation: A popular view of some of the grand conclusions of the sciences in reference to the history of matter and life (London, 1870), 47–48.

Ibid., 315.

Winchell Alexander , The doctrine of evolution: Its data, its principles, its speculations, and its theistic bearings (New York, 1874), 8.

Ibid., 110.

Winchell Alexander , Reconciliation of science and religion (New York. 1877).

See Livingstone David N. , “Nature, man and God in the geography of Nathaniel S. Shaler” (Ph.D. thesis, The Queen's University of Belfast, 1982).

Gilman Daniel C. , The launching of a university and other papers: A sheaf of remembrances (New York, 1906), 132.

Ansted David Thomas , Physical geography (London, 6th edn, 1881), 473. The influence of Owen is clearly traceable in Ansted's contribution on “Physical geography” to A manual of geographical science (London, 1852), 185–413.

See discussions in Livingstone, “Natural theology” (ref. 27).

Flint Robert , Theism (London, 4th revised edn, 1883), 376.

The major sources for McCosh's life and work are Hoeveler J. David Jr , James McCosh and the Scottish intellectual tradition (Princeton, 1979); Sloane William Milligan (ed.), The life of James McCosh: A record chiefly autobiographical (Edinburgh, 1896).

Moore James R. , The post-Darwinian controversies: A study of the Protestant struggle to come to terms with Darwin in Great Britain and America. 1870–1900 (Cambridge, 1979), 246.

McCosh James Dickie George , Typical forms and special ends in creation (Edinburgh, 1856), 370f.

McCosh's predilection for this idealist version, I have argued elsewhere, facilitated his acceptance of Darwinism and this pattern is discernible among many Princeton Calvinists during the latter part of the nineteenth century. See Livingstone David N. , “The idea of design: The vicissitudes of a key concept in the Princeton response to Darwin”, Scottish journal of theology, in press.

Between 1861 and 1866 he lectured in the Princeton Theological Seminary on the connection of revealed religion and physical and ethnological sciences. See Dana , “Arnold Guyot” (ref. 47), 714.

Some of these articles, notably “God in the world” and “God: Is he cognizable by reason?” are reprinted in Winchell's Reconciliation (ref. 58).

See Young Robert M. , “The naturalization of value systems in the human sciences”, in Science and belief from Darwin to Einstein, Block VI: Problems in the biological and human sciences (Milton Keynes, 1981), unit 14, 65–110.

Geddes Patrick , “Biology”, Chambers's encyclopaedia, ii (London and Edinburgh, new edn 1925, first published 1882), 157–64, p. 164.

Winchell Alexander , Preadamites; or a demonstration of the existence of men before Adam: Together with a study of their condition, antiquity, racial affinities, and progressive dispersion over the earth (Chicago, 1880), 156–7. The parallel with Guyot at this point is striking. For if in Winchell's view it was “Nature” that had condemned the ‘inferior races’ to inhospitable and inaccessible regions, in Guyot's eyes it was the Creator who had “placed the cradle of mankind in the midst of the continents of the North … to stimulate and hasten individual development and that of human societies; and not at the centre of the tropical regions, whose balmy, but enervating and treacherous, atmosphere would perhaps have lulled him to sleep the sleep of death in his very cradle”. Guyot , The earth and man(ref. 44), 251.

Ibid., 81.

This is discussed in full in Livingstone David N. , “Science and society: Nathaniel S. Shaler and racial ideology”, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, n.s., ix (1984), 181–210.

Pickering Charles , The races of man: And their geographical distribution (London, new edn, 1854).

Moore , Post-Darwinian controversies (ref. 65), 231. See also Ruse Michael , “The relationship between science and religion in Britain, 1830–1870”, Church history, xliv (1975), 505–22.

See Kellogg Vernon L. , Darwinism today: A discussion of present day scientific criticism of the Darwinian selection theories, together with a brief account of the principal other proposed auxiliary and alternative theories of species forming (London, 1907); Stocking G. W. Jr , “Lamarckianism in American social science: 1890–1915”, Journal of the history of ideas, xxiii (1962), 239–56; Pfeifer Edward J. , “The genesis of American Neo-Lamarckism”, Isis, lvi (1965), 156–67; Gould Stephen Jay , Ontogeny and phytogeny (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); Bowler Peter J. , The eclipse of Darwinism: Anti-Darwinian evolution theories in the decades around 1900 (Baltimore and London, 1983).

See Campbell J. A. Livingstone D. N. , “Neo-Lamarckism and the development of geography in the United States and Great Britain”, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, n.s., viii (1983), 267–94.

Winchell , Doctrine of evolution (ref. 56), 71.

Winchell , Reconciliation (ref. 58), v.

See Bowler Peter J. , “Edward Drinker Cope and the changing structure of evolutionary theory”, Isis, lxviii (1977), 249–65.

Shaler Nathaniel S. , The story of our continent: A reader in the geography and geology of North America (Boston, 1892), 166.

See the discussion in Livingstone David N. , “Environment and inheritance: Nathaniel Southgate Shaler and the American frontier”, in Blouet (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 1), 123–38.

The reprint of this article from The scientific monthly is available in Chorley , William Morris Davis (ref. 9), 759–91.

Ibid., 777.

Ibid., 783.

Ibid., 791.

Davis W. M. , “The progress of geography in the schools”, in Johnson D. W. (ed.), Geographical essays by William Morris Davis (Boston, 1902), 23–69, p. 53.

See Davis W. M. , “An inductive study of the content of geography”, Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, xxxviii (1906), 67–84.

The compatibility of a linear conception with Darwinism is discussed in Hooykaas R. , “The parallel between the history of the earth and the history of the animal world”, Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences, x (1957), 1–18; idem, “Geological uniformitarianism and evolution”, Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences, xix (1966), 3–19.

Quoted in Stoddart , op. cit. (ref. 38), 272. A parallel case would be the plant ecologist Frederick Clements. Also a Lamarckian, he advocated a cyclical, superorganic conception of vegetation succession rather than a linear evolutionary model. See Clements Frederick E. , Plant succession and indicators (Washington, 1928).

Davis , op. cit. (ref. 84), 766.

See Stocking , op. cit. (ref. 77).

Block Robert , “Frederick Jackson Turner and American geography”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, lxx (1980), 31–42.

This is discussed in Coleman William , “Science and symbol in the Turner frontier hypothesis”, American historical review, lxii (1966), 22–49.

Wissler Clark Man and culture (London. 1923), 314, 317.

Semple E. C. , Influences of geographic environment on the basis of Ratzel's system of anthropo-geography (New York, 1911); also idem, American history and its geographical conditions (Boston and New York, 1903).

For the Neo-Lamarckism of Fiske Roosevelt see Berman Milton . John Fiske: The evolution of a popularizer (Cambridge, Mass., 1961); Burton D. H. “Theodore Roosevelt's social Darwinism and views on imperialism”, Journal of the history of ideas, xxvi (1965), 103–18.

Brigham Albert Perry , Geographic influences in American history (Boston, 1903).

Brigham Albert Perry , “Problems of geographic influence”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v (1915), 3–25.

Huntington Ellsworth , World power and evolution (New Haven, 1920), 161–2.

See Huntington Ellsworth , The character of races (New York and London, 1924).

See James P. E. Jones C. F. (eds), American geography: Inventory and prospect (Syracuse, 1954), 473.

Pfeifer G. , Regional geography in the United Slates since the war: A review of trends in theory and method, translated from the German by John Leighly and distributed in mimeographed form by the American Geographical Society (New York, 1938).

In this section of the paper I have drawn substantially on John A. Campbell's contribution to our “Neo-Lamarckism” (ref. 78). The Darwinian geography of Huxley is discussed in Stoddart D. R. , “That Victorian science': Huxley's Physiography and its impact on geography”, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, lxvi (1975), 17–40.

See Fleure H. J. , “James Fairgrieve”, Geography, xxxviii (1935), 316–20; Spate O. H. K. , “Palaeoclimates of geographical thought”, Australian geographer, xiv (1978), 1–7.

Fairgrieve James , Geography and world power (London, 1915), 66–67.

Ibid., 340.

See Boardman P. , The worlds of Patrick Geddes: Biologist, town-planner, re-educator, peace-warrior (London, 1978).

Thomson J. Arthur Geddes Patrick , Life: Outlines of general biology (London, 1931), ii, 899; i, 27.

Thomson J. Arthur Geddes Patrick , “A biological approach”, in Hand J. E. (ed.), Ideals of science and faith (London, 1904), 49–81, especially pp. 75, 77, 79.

Geddes Patrick , “An educational approach”, in Hand (ed.), Ideals of science, 171–216, p. 206.

Fleure H. J. , “The factors of organic evolution”, University College of Wales magazine, xxiv (1901), 71–73.

Fleure H. J. , “Some aspects of race study”, Eugenics review, xiv (1922–23), 93–102.

Fleure H. J. , The races of England and Wales: A survey of recent research (London, 1923), 17.

Peake Harold Fleure Herbert John , Apes and men (London, 1926), 36–37.

Fleure H. J. , “Ancient Wales — Anthropological evidence”, Transactions of the Honorable Society of Cymmrodorion (1915–16), 75–164.

Fleure H. J. , “The geographical study of society and world problems”, Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (York, 1932), 103–18.

Jones G. B. , “The life and career of A. J. Herbertson, and his contribution to the development of geography in Britain” (Unpub. M.A. thesis, University of Sheffield, 1959).

Herbertson A. J. , “Regional environment, heredity and consciousness”, Geographical teacher, viii (1915), 147–53.

Kropotkin P. , Mutual aid (London, 1902). See also Woodcock C. Avakumović L. , The anarchist prince: A biographical study of Peter Kropotkin (London and New York, 1950).

See Lewis Mumford's introductory essay in the 1945 reprint of Howard Ebenezer , Garden cities of tomorrow (London), first published in 1902 as Tomorrow: A peaceful path to real reform.

See discussion in Young Robert M. “‘Non-scientific’ factors in the Darwinian debate”, Actes du XII^e Congrès d'Histoire des Sciences, viii (1971), 221–6.

Mill Hugh Robert , An autobiography (London, 1951), 24, 63, 66, 85.

Mill Hugh Robert , “Geography: Principles and progress”, in Mill Hugh Robert (ed.), The international geography (London, 1907), 2–13, p. 12.

Mill Hugh Robert , The realm of nature: An outline of physiography (London, 1897), 314–15.

See Bryce James , Race sentiment as a factor in history London. 1915); Bryce James , “War and human progress”, in Essays and addresses in war time (London, 1918), 65–91.

Col. Holdich Thomas H. Sir , Political frontiers and boundary making (London, 1916).

MacNamara Nottidge Charles , Origin and character of the British people (London, 1900), 227–8.

See Lyde L. W. , Man in many lands (London, 1911); idem, “Climatic control of skin colour”, in Spiller G. (ed.), Papers on inter-racial problems (London, 1911).

Howarth O. J. R. , The world about us: A study in geographical environment (London, 1926), 10, 16.

See Morrell Jack Thackray Arnold , Gentlemen of science: Early years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Oxford, 1981), 229.

Chairman's address, The journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, i (1832), ix.

Ibid., vii.

When the Secretary came to assess the progress of geography in the first seven years of the Society's existence, his review amounted to a topographical and cartographical inventory, continent by continent. “A sketch of the progress of geography; — And of the labours of the Royal Geographical Society, during the year 1836–7”, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vii (1837), 172–95.

Keltie John Scott , “Thirty years' work of the Royal Geographical Society”, Geographical journal, xlix (1917), 350–72, p. 350.

Stoddart David R. , “The RGS and the ‘new geography': Changing aims and changing roles in nineteenth century science”, Geographical journal, cxlvi (1980), 190–202.

The RGS printed regular announcements about the progress of the Ordnance Survey, the several geological surveys, and the production of Admiralty Charts. Thematic mapping also assumed a new importance during the period. See Thrower Norman J. W. , Maps and man: An examination of cartography in relation to culture and civilization (New Jersey, 1972).

Cameron Ian , To the farthest ends of the earth: The history of the Royal Geographical Society 1830–1980 (London, 1980).

Prichard, for example, was a regular contributor on ethno-geographical issues. More generally, the dramatis personae of the RGS and its constituent interest groups are discussed in Elspeth Loch head, “The emergence of academic geography in Britain in its historical context” (Ph.D. thesis, University of California at Berkeley, 1980).

So, for example, Darwin Charles , “The structure and distribution of coral reefs”, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, xii (1842), 115–20; Wallace Alfred Russel , “On the physical geography of the Malay Archipelago”, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, xxxiii (1863), 217–34.

Felkin R. W. , “On acclimatisation”, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, n.s., xiii (1891), 630.

See Brooks Edwin , “Geography and public policy”, unit 30 of Fundamentals of human geography, Open University social science course (Milton Keynes, 1977), 9–10.

Blouet Brian W. , “Sir Halford Mackinder as British High Commissioner to South Russia 1919–1920”, Geographical journal, cxlii (1976), 228–36.

See, for example, Stoddart D. R. , “The RGS and the foundations of geography at Cambridge”, Geographical journal, cxli (1975), 216–39; Scargill D. I. , “The RGS and the foundations of geography at Oxford”, Geographical journal, cxlii (1976), 438–61; Gilbert Edmund W. , “The RGS and geographical education in 1871”, Geographical journal, cxxxvii (1971), 200–2.

See Freeman T. W. , A history of modern British geography (London and New York, 1980), 8. Also Beaver S. H. , “Geography in the British Association for the Advancement of Science”, Geographical journal, cxlviii (1982), 173–81.

Stoddart , op. cit. (ref. 137), 195.

Geikie Archibald , “Geographical evolution”, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, n.s., i (1879), 422–33.

Mill Hugh Robert , “On research in geographical science”, Geographical journal, n.s., xviii (1901), 407–24, p. 423.

See Dupree A. Hunter , Science in the federal government (Cambridge, Mass., 1957).

Sauer Carl O. , “On the background of geography in the United States”, in Heidelberge Studien zur Kulturgeographie: Festgabe für Gottfried Pfeifer, Heidelberger Geographische Arbeiten, xv (Wiesbaden, 1966), 59–61.

Dunbar , “Credentialism” (ref. 15), 71.

Glacken , op. cit. (ref. 25), xiii.