The Debate on the Nature of the Absorption of Light,1830–1835: A Core-Set Analysis

See Herschel John F. W. , “Light”, Encyclopaedia metropolitana, ii (1828), 341–586, art. 564 for a discussion of this point.

Fresnel Augustin Jean (1788–1827). Most of his writings are collected in Oeuvres complètes d'Augustin Fresnel (3 vols, Paris, 1866–70; reprinted New York, 1965).

This appeared as “De la lumière” in the supplement to Thomson T. , Système de chemie (5 vols, Paris, 1818–22) and was reprinted in Oeuvres, ii, 3–146. It was translated into English as “Elementary view of the undulatory theory of light”, Quarterly journal of science, xxiii (1827), 127–41, 441–54; xxiv (1827), 113–35, 431–48; xxv (1828), 198–215; xxvi (1828), 168–91, 389–407; xxvii (1829), 159–65.

Cited from Quarterly journal of science, xxvii (1829), 161.

During the 1810s Joseph von Fraunhofer (1787–1826) had discovered the dark lines of the solar spectrum and the emission spectra of flames. von Fraunhofer J. , “Bestimmung des Brechungs- und Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens verschieder Glasarten, in Bezug auf die Vervollkommnung achromatischer Fernröhre”, Denkschriften der Königliche Baierischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu München, v (1814–15 (pub. 1817)), 193–226. This work did not become generally known until the 1820s.

Brewster David (1781–1868). The standard biography of Brewster remains Gordon M. M. , The home life of Sir David Brewster (Edinburgh, 1869). For a philosophical and methodological analysis of his views on the undulatory theory of light see Morse E. W. , Natural philosophy, hypotheses and impiety: Sir David Brewster confronts the undulatory theory of light (University of California (Berkeley) Ph.D. thesis, 1972). For a shorter discussion of Brewster's attitude towards hypotheses see Olson R. , Scottish philosophy and British physics 1750–1880 (Princeton, 1975), esp. pp. 177–88.

Herschel John F. W. (1792–1871). For an account of his life see Buttmann G. , The shadow of the telescope: A biography of John Herschel (London, 1970). His papers are kept in the Royal Society and will be cited as RS MS HS.

Brewster D. , “Description of a monochromatic lamp for microscopical purposes, &c, with remarks on the absorption of the prismatic rays by coloured media”, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, ix (1822), 433–44. Herschel J. F. W. , “On the absorption of light by coloured media, and on the colours of the prismatic spectrum exhibited by certain flames; with an account of a ready mode of determining the absolute dispersive power of any medium by direct experiment”, ibid., 445–60.

Brewster , op. cit. (ref. 8), 435–6. Herschel , op. cit. (ref. 8), 455–8.

Talbot W. H. Fox (1800–77). For an account of his life see Arnold H. J. P. , William Henry Fox Talbot: Pioneer of photography and man of science (London, 1977).

Talbot W. H. F. , “Some experiments on coloured flames”, Edinburgh journal of science, v (1826), 77–81.

Talbot was quite well aware of his chemical inexpertise, writing to Herschel on one occasion “I am not much of a chemist, but sometimes amuse myself with experiments”, 27 March 1833, RS MS HS 17.270.

Bunsen R. W. and Kirchhoff G. R. , “Chemische Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen”, Poggendorff Annalen der Physik und Chemie, ex (1860), 161–89; translated into English as “Chemical analysis by spectrum-observations”, Philosophical magazine, xx (1860), 89–109. For an extreme statement of this position see Edward Frankland's discussion of H. E. Roscoe's lecture “On the application of the induction coil to Steinheil's apparatus for spectrum analysis”, Chemical news, iv (1861), 118–22, on p. 131 of the same volume.

Sutton M. A. , “Spectroscopy and the chemists: A neglected opportunity?”, Ambix, xxiii (1976), 16–26.

McGucken W. , Nineteenth century spectroscopy: Development of the understanding of spectra 1802–1897 (Baltimore, 1969), 4–10.

Sutton , op. cit. (ref. 14), 17.

ibid., 21.

Ibid ., 19 and McGucken , op. cit. (ref. 15), 6.

McGucken , op. cit. (ref. 15), 9.

ibid., 8.

Sutton M. A. , “Sir John Herschel and the development of spectroscopy in Britain”, The British journal for the history of science, vii (1974), 42–60.

ibid., 55. For a direct contradiction of this see Herschel to J. D. Forbes, 25 September 1837, RS MS HS 21.229, where he discusses in some detail the solar spectrum.

See [ Crookes W. ], “Early researches on the spectra of artificial light from different sources”, Chemical news, iv (1861), 184–5. Miller W. A. , “The new method of spectrum analysis”, ibid ., 159–61. Roscoe H. E. , “On the application of the induction coil to Steinheil's apparatus for spectrum analysis”, ibid ., 118–22. Kirchhoff G. R. , “Zur Geschichte der Spectral-Analyse und der Analyse der Sonnenatmosphäre”, Poggendorff Annalen der Physik und Chemie, cxviii (1863), 94–111, translated into English as “Contributions towards the history of spectrum analysis and of the analysis of the solar atmosphere”, Philosophical magazine, xxv (1863), 250–62.

Collins H. M. , “The place of the ‘core-set’ in modern science: Social contingency with methodological propriety in science”, History of science, xix (1981), 6–19.

ibid., 8.

Rudwick M. J. S. , “Individuals and the interactions in science past and present: Introduction”, History of science, xix (1981), 1–5. This article forms the introduction to the number containing Collins's paper. See also Rudwick M.J. S. , “Charles Darwin in London: The integration of public and private science”, Isis, lxxiii (1982), 168–206.

Collins , op. cit. (ref. 24), 9.

ibid., 10. Collins H. M. , “The seven sexes: A study in the sociology of a phenomenon, or the replication of experiments in physics”, Sociology, ix (1975), 205–24, and “Son of seven sexes: The social destruction of a physical phenomenon”, Social studies of science, xi (1981), 33–62.

Collins , op. cit. (ref. 24), 14.

For Brewster see ref. 6, and for Herschel ref. 7.

Airy G. B. to J. F. W. Herschel, 16 July 1831, RS MS HS 1.49.

Of the eight papers listed in the Royal Society catalogue of scientific papers that Talbot wrote before 1830, six are mathematical, one is his 1826 spectra paper, op. cit. (ref. 11), and the other a brief one-page note “On monochromatic light”, Quarterly journal of science, xxii (1827), 374.

See Sherman P. D. , Colour vision in the nineteenth century: The Young-Helmhollz-Maxwell Theory (Bristol, 1981), ch. 2.

Brewster D. , “Observations of the lines of the solar spectrum, and on those produced by the Earth's atmosphere, and by the action of nitrous acid gas”, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xii (1833), 519–30, p. 519.

Talbot , op. cit. (ref. 11). The Edinburgh journal of science was edited by Brewster .

Brewster , op. cit. (ref. 34), 520.

ibid., 520–1.

ibid., 521, Brewster's emphasis.

Brewster D. , “Report on the recent progress of optics”, Report of the British Association (1832), 308–22, p. 321. Here should be noted a curious discrepancy in Brewster's observational technique. In the case of nitrous acid gas he observed the existence of the absorption lines, whereas in the case of iodine, where there also exists a large number of lines, he only noted that the middle of the spectrum tended to be absorbed. Brewster might well have used a different prism for his observation of iodine; I can think of no other experimental reason.

See Talbot to Herschel, 27 March 1833, RS MS HS 17.270, where Talbot comments that it was a “twelvemonth” since Brewster had told him about the discovery.

Brewster , op. cit. (ref. 34), 521.

Brewster , op. cit. (ref. 39), 319.

See for example Brewster D. , “On the laws of the polarisation of light by refraction”, Philosophical transactions (1830), 69–84, 133–44.

Brewster D. , A treatise on optics (1st edn, London, 1831).

ibid., p. 135.

For an account of the opposition that the theory received in Britain see Cantor G. , “The reception of the wave theory of light in Britain: A case study illustrating the role of methodology in scientific debate”, Historical studies in the physical sciences, vi (1976), 109–32.

Fresnel A. J. , “Second mémoire sur la double refraction” (written in 1822), Mémoires de l'Académie des Sciences, vii (1827), 45–176; Oeuvres , ii, 479–596, p. 512. Young T. , “Theoretical investigations intended to illustrate the phenomena of polarisation”, Supplement to the fourth, fifth and sixth editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (6 vols, Edinburgh, 1824), vi, 860–3, pp. 862–3. For a discussion of this aspect of the undulatory theory see James F. A. J. L. , “The physical interpretation of the wave-theory of light”, The British journal for the history of science (forthcoming).

Brewster D. , “Observations on the absorption of specific rays, in reference to the undulatory theory of light”, Philosophical magazine, ii (1833), 360–3, esp. p. 361. See Morse, op. cit. (ref. 6), 189–90 for a discussion of this point.

Fresnel , Quarterly journal of science, xxvii (1829), 161–2 (see ref. 3) where he explicitly states this position.

Brewster , op. cit. (ref. 39), 321.

ibid., 321–2.

For example Whewell William , Astronomy and general physics considered with reference to natural theology (3rd Bridgewater Treatise) (London, 1833), claimed that the elastic solid aether was evidence for the existence of a benevolent deity as it transmitted light from the Sun without which man could not exist. This view was attacked by Brewster in Edinburgh review, lviii (1834), 422–57. Another example is Powell Baden , “Remarks on Mr. Barton's reply, respecting the inflection of light”, Philosophical magazine, iii (1833), 412–17 where he listed the phenomena which had been explained according to both theories, to show, by the longer list for the undulatory theory, the superiority of that theory. I have not been able to trace Brewster's reaction to this.

Talbot to Herschel, 27 March 1833, RS MS HS 17.270.

ibid., where Talbot makes it quite clear that Brewster had informed him.

See Herschel to Daubeny, 25 February 1832, RS MS HS 21.102, and Cannon S. F. , Science in culture: The early Victorian period (New York, 1978), ch. 6.

Daniell John Frederic (1790–1845), professor of chemistry at King's College, London, between 1831 and 1845.

Miller William Hallowes (1801–80), professor of mineralogy at Cambridge.

A week after Brewster had announced the name of the gas to the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 15 April 1833 (see ref. 34) W. H. Miller read to the Cambridge Philosophical Society, on 22 April, a paper detailing the work he and J. F. Daniell had done on absorption spectra of light passing through bromine vapour, iodine vapour, euchlorine (C1₂O₇) and vapour of indigo. He made it quite clear that their work was derived from Brewster's work and that they knew the name of the gas in which Brewster had observed the phenomena. It would thus appear that they held back their work until they knew that Brewster had announced his. Miller W. H. , “On the effect of light on the spectrum passed through coloured gases”, Philosophical magazine, ii (1833), 381–2.

See Talbot to Herschel , 9 and 27 March 1833, RS MS HS 17.269/70 and 31 May 1833, RS MS HS 17.272, where Talbot states that the substance was iodine vapour.

Miller W. H. , op. cit. (ref. 58), 381–2, reported that he and Daniell had observed that the spectrum of iodine vapour had equidistant lines. In fact, Talbot had observed that the lines became more and more numerous towards the blue end of the spectrum; Talbot to Herschel, 31 May 1833, RS MS HS 17.272.

Brewster , op. cit. (ref. 34).

ibid., 521 where he mentions that it does have theoretical implications but he does not elucidate.

ibid., 521–3.

ibid., 521.

ibid., 528.

ibid., 529.

Brewster , op. cit. (ref. 52), 456 where Brewster suggests that this is the case.

Brewster , op. cit. (ref. 44), 142.

Ibid ., 142, and ibid ., 87 where he described Fraunhofer's observations of stellar spectra. Fraunhofer, op. cit. (ref. 5), 225–6.

Brewster , op. cit. (ref. 34), 529.

Brewster D. and Gladstone J. H. , “On the lines of the solar spectrum”, Philosophical transactions (1860), 149–60. On pp. 158–9 they reported that Gladstone had attempted this experiment at Beachy Head but that he had not detected any lines.

Brewster , op. cit. (ref. 34), 530.

Brewster , op. cit. (ref. 39), mentions both these aspects of Brewster's work on absorption. The chemical aspect of this work was missed by J. Morrell and A. Thackray in their discussion of the absorption debate in Gentlemen of science (Oxford, 1981), 466–72.

Brewster , op. cit. (ref. 48).

ibid., 361.

ibid., 362, Brewster's emphasis.

Ibid.

ibid., 363. Richard Potter (1799–1886) was a disciple of Brewster's and was professor of natural philosophy at University College, London.

Whewell William (1794–1866) had recently resigned from the chair of mineralogy at Cambridge.

Airy G. B. , “Remarks on Sir David Brewster's paper ‘On the absorption of specific rays &c’”, Philosophical magazine, ii (1833), 419–24.

ibid., 422.

Whewell W. , “Address to the 1833 British Association”, Report of the British Association (1833), xi–xxvi.

ibid., xv–xvii.

ibid., xvi.

ibid., xvii.

See the references in ref. 47.

Talbot to Herschel, 31 May 1833, RS MS HS 17.272.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Dalton J. , A new system of chemical philosophy (2 vols, London, 1808–27), i, 143–4.

Herschel J. F. W. , “On the absorption of light by coloured media, viewed in connexion with the undulatory theory”; abstract in Report of the British Association (1833), 373–4; full paper in Philosophical magazine, iii (1833), 401–12.

ibid., 406.

Kane Robert John (1809–90), then lecturer in natural history at the Royal Dublin Society. In 1845 he became director of the Museum of Economic Geology in Dublin, later the Royal College of Science for Ireland.

Kane R.J. , “Case of interference of sound”. Report of the British Association, part 2 (1835), 13–14.

Herschel , op. cit. (ref. 92, Philosophical magazine), 406.

Ibid.

ibid., 406–9. I have repeated these experiments of Herschel's and found his observations to be quite accurate.

ibid., 407, Herschel's emphasis.

Herschel J. F. W. , “Sound”, in Encyclopaedia metropolitana, ii, (1830), 747–825.

Herschel , op. cit. (ref. 92, Philosophical magazine), 409, Herschel's emphasis. This refers to his op. cit. (ref. 100), art. 205. Herschel stated in his paper that since writing his essay he had discovered that Charles Wheatstone had made the same observation in “On the resonances or reciprocated vibrations of columns of air”, Quarterly journal of science, xxv (1828), 175–83 (in The scientific papers of Sir Charles Wheatstone (London, 1879), 36–46).

Herschel , op. cit. (ref. 100), art. 323.

Herschel , op. cit. (ref. 92, Philosophical magazine), 402.

ibid., 410.

Ibid.

Literary gazette (1833), 453.

In his review of W. Whewell's Philosophy of the inductive sciences, founded on their history (2 vols, London, 1840) (Edinburgh review, lxxiv (1842), 265–306, pp. 304–6), Brewster continued his attack on the undulatory theory, but mentioned absorption only as a phenomenon not reconciled with the theory. In his article “Optics” in the 7th edition (1842) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, xvi, 348–514, pp. 493–4, he stated that although absorption had not been satisfactorily explained according to the undulatory theory of light it had been shown by Herschel that the theory was “consistent with observation”. This position he reaffirmed in the 4th and much revised edition of his A treatise on optics (London, 1853), 177.

Whewell W. , “Suggestions respecting Sir John Herschel's remarks on the theory of the absorption of light by coloured media”, Report of the British Association (1834), 550–2.

ibid., 550–1.

ibid., 551.

Ibid.

Ibid.

von Wrede Fabian Jakob (1802–93). I have not been able to discover much biographical detail about Wrede. He joined the army in 1818 and by 1838 was a major. He later became chief of staff of the artillery. He represented Sweden at the international metrication commission in Paris. In 1835 he was elected to the Stockholm Academy.

Wrede F.J. V. , “Försök att härleda Ljusets absorbtion från Undulations-Teorien”, Konglia Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens handlingar (1834), 318–52. Translated into English as “Attempt to explain the absorption of light according to the undulatory theory”, Taylor's scientific memoirs, i (1836), 477–502.

ibid., 478.

ibid., 476. Wrede would not have known at this time of Whewell's comments.

ibid., 478.

ibid., 478–9.

ibid., 479–80.

ibid., 479.

ibid., 479.

ibid., 485.

ibid., 480–1.

ibid., 485.

ibid., 487.

Brewster , op. cit. (ref. 34), 521–3.

Wrede , op. cit. (ref. 114, Taylor's scientific memoirs), 488–9.

ibid. 489.

ibid., 489 and 490–1 respectively.

ibid., 501.

ibid., 489.

ibid., 489–90.

ibid., 491.

ibid., 491.

ibid., 492.

ibid., 494.

ibid., 494.

ibid., 502.

ibid., 502.

ibid., 490.

Miller W. H. , op. cit. (ref. 58).

Talbot to Herschel, 31 May 1833, RS MS HS 17.272.

Talbot W. H. F. , “On the nature of light”, Philosophical magazine, vii (1835), 113–18, p. 117.

ibid., 117.

ibid., 117–18.

ibid., 117, Talbot's emphasis.

For example the aberration and the dispersion of light. For the former see Wilson D. B. , “George Gabriel Stokes on stellar aberration and the luminiferous ether”, The British journal for the history of science, vi (1972), 57–72. For the latter see Cauchy A. L. , Nouveaux exercices de mathematiques (Mémoire sur la dispersion de la lumière) (Prague, 1835). See also Valson C.-A. , La vie et les travaux du Baron Cauchy (Paris, 1868; reprinted Paris, 1970), 147–50.

Brewster , op. cit. (ref. 107, Treatise), 164. See also [ Brewster D. ], “Cours de philosophie positive. Par M. Auguste Comte”, Edinburgh review, lxvii (1838), 271–308, p. 306.

See Stokes G. G. , “On the change of refrangibility of light”, Philosophical transactions (1852), 463–562 and Ångström A. J. , “Optiska Undersökningar”, Konglia Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens handlingar (1854), 335–60.