Cultural Imperialism and Exact Sciences: German Expansion Overseas 1900–1930

The standard reference is Basalla George , “The spread of Western science”, Science, clv (1967), 611–22. A recent survey is Helge Kragh's On science and underdevelopment (Roskilde, Denmark, 1980).

in the vast literature on this subject, two essays are especially valuable: de Solla Price Derek J. , “Is technology historically independent of science? A study in statistical historiography”, Technology and culture, vi (1965), 553–68; Rosenberg Nathan , “Science, invention, and economic growth”, in his Perspectives on technology (Cambridge, 1976), 260–79.

Lichtheim G. , Imperialism (New York, 1971), 4.

Koebner R. and Schmidt H. D. , Imperialism: The story and significance of a political word, 1840–1960 (Cambridge, 1964).

Wehler H.-U. , “Industrial growth and early German imperialism”, in Owen Roger and Sutcliffe Bob (eds.), Studies in the theory of imperialism (London, 1972), 71–90, p. 88.

Woolf Leonard , Imperialism and civilization (1928; New York, 1971), 11.

Lenin , Imperialism: The highest stage of capitalism (New York, 1939), 88–92.

Braudel Fernand , The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the Age of Philip II, tr. Reynolds Siân (2 vols, New York, 1975), ii, 763.

Thornton A. P. , Doctrines of imperialism (New York, 1965), 187.

Hahn Roger , “Scientific research as an occupation in 18th century Paris”, Minerva, xiii (1975), 501–13; Shinn Terry , “The French science faculty system, 1808–1914”, Historical studies in the physical sciences, x (1979), 271–332; Turner R. Steven , “The growth of professorial research in Prussia, 1818 to 1848: Causes and context”, ibid., iii (1971), 137–82; Jungnickel Christa , “Teaching and research in the physical sciences and mathematics in Saxony, 1820–1850”, ibid., x (1979), 3–48; Ross Sydney , “Scientist: The story of a word”, Annals of science, xviii (1962), 65–86.

Thackray Arnold , “Natural knowledge in cultural context: The Manchester model”, American historical review, lxxix (1974), 672–709; Kargon Robert , Science in Victorian Manchester (Baltimore, 1977).

Occasionally revealing is Pfetsch Frank R. , Zur Entwicklung der Wissenschaftspolitik in Deutschland 1750–1914 (Berlin, 1974). More solid in every way is Riese Reinhard , Die Hochschule auf dem Wege zum wissenschaftlichen Grossbetrieb: Die Universität Heidelberg und das badische Hochschulwesen 1860–1914 (Stuttgart, 1977). A recent reevaluation is provided in Lee Cahan David , “The Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt: A study in the relations of science, technology, and industry in imperial Germany” (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1980).

Struik Dirk J. , Yankee science in the making (Boston, 1948); Stearns Raymond P. , Science in the British Colonies of North America (Urbana, 1971); Galarneau Claude , Les collèges classiques au Canada fran&çais (1620–1970) (Montreal, 1978); Thomson Don W. , Men and meridians, i (Ottawa, 1966); Cárdiff Guillermo Fúrlong , Historia social y cultural del Rio de la Plata, 1536–1810: El transplante cultural: Ciencia (Buenos Aires, 1969); Bose Walter B. L. , “Historia del correo de España et Hispanoamerica (1500–1820)”, AFRA: Revista filatélica Argentina, xxi (1951), 13 pp.; Weinberg Gregorio , “Sobre la historia de la tradición científica latinoamericana”, Interciencia, iii (1978), 72–78.

der Kinderen T. H. (ed.), Het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen gedurende de eerste eeuw van zijn bestaan 1778–1878: Gedenkboek , i (Batavia [Djakarta], 1878); Bosch F. D. K. , “The Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences: A glance at its history”, Koloniaal Instituut bulletin (Amsterdam), i (1938), 116–24. The early development of the American Philosophical Society is considered in essays published in the Society's Proceedings, lxxxvi (1942) and lxxxvii (1943), and in Hindle Brooke , The pursuit of science in revolutionary America (Chapel Hill, 1951). On Manchester see Thackray , op. cit. (ref. 11).

Headrick Daniel R. , “The tools of imperialism: Technology and the expansion of European colonial empires in the nineteenth century”, Journal of modern history, li (1979), 231–63.

Brockway Lucile H. , Science and colonial expansion: The role of the British Royal Botanic Gardens (New York, 1979). Brockway does not make a distinction between colonialism and imperialism, nor does she consider scientific discourse. On Griesebach, see Wagenitz Gerhardt , “Griesebach, August Heinrich Rudolf”, Dictionary of scientific biography, v (New York, 1972), 546–7. How Parisian naturalists took advantage of French colonial aspirations is discussed by Camille Limoges in “The development of the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle of Paris, c. 1800–1914”, in Fox Robert and Weisz George (eds.), The organization of science and technology in France 1808–1914 (Cambridge, 1980), 211–40.

Thornton , op. cit. (ref. 9), 187.

Caneva Kenneth L. , “From galvanism to electrodynamics: The transformation of German physics and its social context”, Historical studies in the physical sciences, ix (1979), 63–160; Forman Paul , “Weimar culture, causality, and quantum theory, 1918–1927: Adaptation by German physicists and mathematicians to a hostile intellectual environment”, ibid., iii (1971), 1–115.

Laissus Y. , “Gaspard Monge et l'expédition d'Egypt, 1798–1799”, Revue de synthèse, lxxxi (1960), 309–36; Crosland Maurice , The Society of Arcueil: A view of French science at the time of Napoleon I (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), 14–16.

Cawood John , “The magnetic crusade: Science and politics in early Victorian Britain”, Isis, lxx (1979), 493–518.

Thomson Don W. , Men and meridians, ii (Ottawa, 1968); Thomson Malcolm M. , The beginning of the long dash: A history of timekeeping in Canada (Toronto, 1978).

The standard treatment is found in Landes David S. , The unbound Prometheus: Technological change and industrial development in Western Europe from 1750 to the present (Cambridge, 1969). Finance and politics concern Fritz Stern in Gold and iron: Bismarck, Bleichröder, and the building of the German empire (New York, 1977). The best English survey of the German colonial empire is given by Townsend Mary E. , The rise and fall of Germany's colonial empire, 1884–1918 (1930; New York, 1966). A recent summary is Woodruff D. Smith's German colonial empire (Chapel Hill, 1978).

Heilbron John L. , “Lectures on the history of atomic physics, 1900–1922”, in Weiner Charles (ed.), History of twentieth century physics (New York, 1977), 40–108; Forman Paul , “The environment and practice of atomic physics in Weimar Germany” (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1967); Hermann Armin , The new physics: The route into the Atomic Age (Munich/Bonn-Bad Godesberg, 1979).

Craig John Eldon , “A mission for German learning: The University of Strasbourg and Alsatian society, 1870–1918” (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1973); von Meyenn Karl , “Die Reorganisation der Strassburger Universität im Jahr 1872 und Christoffels Berufung auf den mathematischen Lehrstuhl”, Heimatblätter des Kreises Aachen , xxxiv/xxxv (1978/79), 68–74, and following articles.

Weber Eugen , Peasants into Frenchmen: The modernization of rural France, 1870–1914 (Stanford, 1976).

Toynbee Arnold J. , Turkey: A past and a future (New York, 1917), 40–58; Jahresbericht der deutschen Schule in Adana, 1914–1915 (Istanbul, 1915), 3–8.

Zentrales Staatsarchiv Merseburg, Democratic Republic of Germany. Rep. 92, Schmidt-Ott A. LXXIII, 10–11. Hermann von Gravert to Friedrich Schmidt-Ott, 1 October 1915; ibid., 6–8. R. Dohrn to Schmidt-Ott, 24 March 1916.

Ibid., 66. F. Schmidt to Friedrich Schmidt-Ott, n.d.; ibid., 73. F. Schmidt to Schmidt-Ott, 29 September 1916.

Lannoy Gilbert , “La renaissance de la communauté scientifique flamande (1890–1940)” (M.Sc. diss., University of Montreal, 1975), 60–70, 145–6, 148–52.

Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek, Göttingen, Federal Republic of Germany. Nachlass Felix Klein III-A. Dyck, “Die Umwandlung der Genter Universität in eine flämische Hochschule”, 23-page typescript read before the military government in Brussels on 20 October 1916.

The point has been questioned by John Heilbron. I insist on it here by recalling the character of theoretical physics as a scientific discipline with a circumscribed discourse, a circle of practitioners, a system of certification, and a panoply of specialized, publishing outlets.

It can be maintained that British scientists like James Clerk Maxwell, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), John Strutt (Lord Rayleigh), and Joseph Larmor—who all certainly contributed to discourse in theoretical physics—made no significant moves to cultivate a discipline with this name. Neither was the discipline of theoretical physics, as such, manifest in France around 1900, even though individuals like Henri Poincaré and Paul Langevin contributed to theoretical developments. During the years before the First World War, experimental physics flourished in the United States, but, with the exception of Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University, no real theoreticians were active. Japan harboured competent theoretical physicists in the form of Hantaro Nagaoka and Jun Ishiwara, but it had no centre of activity to compare with that in Argentina. The clearest discussion of these matters is found in Russell McCormmach's “Editor's foreword”, Historical studies in the physical sciences, iii (1971), ix-xxiv.

Centres beyond continental Europe competing with Apia included Greenwich, John Milne's private observatory on the Isle of Wight, Louis Agricola Bauer's Department of Magnetism in Washington, D.C., Willem van Bemmelen's geomagnetical observatory at Batavia, Indonesia, and the three Jesuit observatories near Shanghai, China.

Angenheister Gustav , “Emil Wiechert”, Deutsches biographisches Jahrbuch (Stuttgart, 1928) 294–302; Wiechert Emil , “Institut für Geophysik”, in: Göttingen Vereinigung zur Förderung des angewandten Physik und Mathematik, Die Physikalischen Institut der Universität Göttingen (Leipzig, 1906), 119–88.

Stevenson Robert Louis , Vailima letters (London, 1895).

The earliest mention of this argument is given in a letter from Göttingen geographer Hermann Wagner to Dezernent at the Prussian Kultusministerium Friedrich Schmidt-Ott, 7 February 1901. Zentrales Staatsarchiv Merseburg, German Democratic Republic. Rep. 92, Schmidt-Ott, B. XXIII. 2, p. 92.

A short description and evaluation of the work of the observatory, based entirely on published sources, is given by Angenheister Gustav Georg in “Geschichte des Samoa-Observatoriums von 1902 bis 1921”, in: Birett H. Helbig K. Kertz W. , and Schmucker U. (eds.), Zur Geschichte der Geophysik (Berlin, 1974), 43–66. See also: Adams C. E. and Marsden E. , “The Samoan observatory”, New Zealand journal of science and technology, iii (1920), 157–61.

Zentrales Staatsarchiv Merseburg, Rep. 92, Schmidt-Ott, B. XXIII.2, pp. 135–8, “Aufzeichnung über die Kommittarische Beratung der Frage der Erhaltung des geophysikalischen Observatoriums auf Samoa. Reichsamt des Innern, 6. VI. 1904.” Zentrales Staatsarchiv Potsdam, Reichministerium des Innern 16274, pp. 154–7, “Aufzeichnung über eine Besprechnung im Reichs-Kolonialamt über die Förderung wissenschaftlicher Unternehmung in den Kolonien”, 1908.

A record of Bauer's travels is contained in the photographic album of the ship “Carnegie”, Library of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Washington.

Angenheister's contract is preserved in the file “Samoa. Observatorium. Verträge”, at the Institut für Geophysik, Universität Göttingen.

An introduction to these issues can be found in: Richter C. F. , Elementary seismology (San Francisco, 1958); Byerly P. , Seismology (New York, 1942); Macelwane J. B. , Introduction to theoretical seismology, i: Geodynamics (New York, 1936). Macelwane evaluates the contributions of Wiechert's group, most of which appeared in the Nachrichten of the Göttingen Scientific Society.

Institut für Geophysik, Universität Göttingen. “Samoa Observatorium”. Emil Wiechert to Franz Linke, 1 March 1905.

ibid. [Correspondence with Linke]. Franz Linke to Hermann Wagner, 9 February 1906.

Institut für Geophysik, Göttingen. “Uebersicht über die Ausgaben Juli 1914 — Juli 1918”, and “Uebersicht über die Guthaben & Schulden der Observatoriumskasse in Apia, Samoa”, both written by Angenheister.

Ibid. “Angenheister, Inventar iii des Samoa Observatoriums”, receipt for the revolver.

National Archives, Wellington, New Zealand. DEA, 18/1/Pt 1. “A Deputation to the Hon. Sir James Allen from the New Zealand Institute, Thursday, 12th February, 1920”.

ibid. Bauer Louis A. to Adams C. E. , 9 December 1919. copy.

Institut für Geophysik, Göttingen. “Correspondenz Marsden, Bauer, Farr, etc.”, Ernest Marsden to Gustav Angenheister, [20 April 1921].

ibid. “Schuldschein.” Gustav Angenheister to Paul Liebrecht, 16 February 1922, and Deutsche Handels- und Plantagensgesellschaft der Südsee Inseln zu Hamburg to the Göttingen curators of the Apia observatory, 30 March 1922.

ibid. “Correspondenz über Verarbeitung. Chree.” Gustav Angenheister to the New Zealand high commissioner in London, 12 February 1926, copy.

National Archives, Wellington. SIR 49/15/8. David H. F. to the secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington, 18 September 1935.

Schiff Warren , “The influence of the German armeu torces and war industry on Argentina, 1880–1914”, Hispanic American historical review, lii (1972), 436–55; Hayn E. , “Die Entwicklung der deutschen Elektrizitätswerke in Buenos Aires”, Phoenix: Zeitschrift für deutsche Geistesarbeit in Südamerika, xii (1926), 131–76; Martelliti José Angel , “Evolución de la industría eléctrica en la República Argentina”, Revista electrotécnica, xlix (1963), 249–92.

See Pyenson Lewis , “The incomplete transmission of a European image: Physics at greater Buenos Aires and Montreal, 1890–1920”, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, cxxii (1978), 92–114, pp. 100–2. The present text modifies some of my statements on pp. 111–12.

ibid., 97–9; Pyenson Lewis , “Einstein's early scientific collaboration”, Historical studies in the physical sciences, vii (1976), 83–123.

Gaviola Enrique , “Richard Gans”, Ciencia e investigación, x (1954), 381–4.

Westerkamp José Federico , Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina, ii: Física (Buenos Aires, 1975), 93–7.

Wempe Johann , “Die Beziehung zwischen Ejnar Hertzsprung und Karl Schwarzschild”, Mitteilungen des astrophysikalischen Observatoriums Potsdam , no. 172 (1974), reprinted from Veröffentl. der Archenhold-Sternwarte, no. 6 (1974), 45–54.

Hartmann wrote of his intense dissatisfaction with the Göttingen post as well as of having declined the Yale and Vienna calls in a letter to the Prussian Kultusministerium, 10 October 1910, located in the Zentralen Staatsarchiv Merseburg. Rep, 76, Va, Sekt. 6, Titl. IV, Bd XXIII. Hartmann sent his conditions to Bose in a letter dated 10 May 1911, located at the Fundacion Bose, Buenos Aires. In a letter to the Kultusministerium of 19 June 1911, Hartmann declined the La Plata call. Merseburg, op. cit., Bd XXIII.

Curtiss Ralph Hamilton , “William Joseph Hussey”, Popular astronomy, xxxiv (1927), 1–8. Hussey wrote to Curtiss from Buenos Aires about his lobbying efforts on 26 July 1911 and 20 August 1911. Michigan Historical Collections, Ann Arbor. Hussey Family Papers, Box 1.

Curtiss , op. cit. (ref. 58).

Hussey reported to Curtis on 29 April that he had sacked Laub “for good and all.” Michigan Historical Collections, Ann Arbor. Bimu C455, Michigan-University-Observatory, Box 1.

Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg. Heid. HS. 3695, Dl and E. Hartmann to Max Wolf, 30 December 1919.

Antecedentes científicos y docentes de Enrique Loedel Palumbo (La Plata, 1945). A copy of this printed document is located in the archives of the newspaper La Prensa, Buenos Aires. Loedel's devastating critique was: “Ueber die ‘quantifizierte Rotation der Atome’”, Physikalische Zeitschrift, xxxi (1930), 926–9.

Gaviola provides autobiographical details in his obituary of Gans, op. cit. (ref. 54). He elaborates in an address delivered at the University of Cuyo, 20 December 1977 (mimeograph, San Carlos de Bariloche, 1977).

Gaviola indicated Einstein's support in a personal communication to me.

The work of Gould and his successors is chronicled by Chaudet Enrique , Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina, v: La evolución de la astronomia (Buenos Aires, 1924), 20–62. Marcelo Montserrat has provided a sophisticated analysis in “La introducción de la ciencia moderna en Argentina: El caso Gould”, Criterio, no. 1632 (25 November 1971).

Schrecker John E. , Imperialism and Chinese nationalism: Germany in Shantung (Cambridge, Mass., 1971).

Baustaedt Karl , “Bruno Meyermann”, Bundesblatt der ‘Blauen Sänger’: Studentische Musikverbindung an der Georg Augusta (Göttingen) im S. V., no. 2 (1963), 29–33; Voigt H. H. , “Bruno Meyermann”, Astronomische Nachrichten, cclxxxvii (1963), 193–4.

The poem is published together with an account of the dedication of the observatory in Der Auslandsdeutsche: Beiblatt zum Monatsblatt ‘Die Flotte’, i, no. 6 (June 1912), 2.

The early development of the Deutsch-Chinesische Hochschule is recounted by Franke Otto , a central actor, in “Die deutsch-chinesische Hochschule in Tsingtau, ihre Vorgeschichte, ihre Einrichtung und ihre Aufgabe”, in his Ostasiatische Neubildung (Hamburg, 1911), 200–18. Problems with the school are considered in Ganz Albert Harding , “The role of the imperial German navy in colonial affairs” (Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1972), 239ff.

Plans for the expansion are contained in the Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv Freiburg, RM 3/v. 7001.

Hupka's career is sketched in J. C. Poggendorff's literarisch-biographisches Handwörterbuch, v (Leipzig, 1925).

Archives Australian , Brighton, Victoria: MP 1565.

Baustaedt , op. cit. (ref. 67).

Sinclair Michael Loy , “The French settlement of Shanghai on the eve of the revolution of 1911” (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1973).

Lamberton Mary , St. John's University Shanghai 1879–1951 (New York, 1955); Cent ans sur le fleuve bleu (Zikawei, 1942).

The Rockefeller operation is exhaustively treated in Mary Brown Bullock, “The Rockefeller Foundation in China: Philanthropy, Peking Union Medical College, and public health” (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1973).

Linde Max , Die Tung-Chi Universität in Shanghai-Woosung, appearing as pp. 83–104 in Mohr F. W. , Fremde und Deutsche Kulturbetätigung in China (Münster i. W., 1928).

Much diplomacy and little analysis are provided in Madeleine Chi, China diplomacy, 1914–1918 (Harvard University: East Asian Research Center, 1970).

Zentrales Staatsarchiv Potsdam. Nachlass Marie Du Bois-Reymond, DUB-1/3. Du Bois-Reymond Marie , “Die Deutschen und der Krieg in China”, manuscript dated April 1918.

Among many sources see Wang Y. C. , Chinese intellectuals and the West (Chapel Hill, 1966); Buck Peter , American science and modern China, 1876–1936 (Cambridge, 1980).

Wood Carleton Leroy , “Die Beziehungen Deutschlands zu China” (Dr phil. diss., University of Heidelberg, 1934); Liu F. F. , A military history of modern China (Princeton, 1956), 61ff.

Minerva: Jahrbuch der gelehrten Welt (1934). 1643; ibid. (1939), 775.

Foucault , Les mots et les choses: Une archéologie des sciences humaines (Paris, 1966), 7.

The matter is considered in Pyenson, op. cit. (ref. 52), 92–93.

Hill Alette Olin and Hill Boyd H. Jr , “Marc Bloch and comparative history”, American historical review, lxxxv (1980), 828–46, p. 834.

Astronomy in the United States received a major stimulus from Germans fleeing the aftermath of the revolutions of 1848. Rothenberg Marc , “The educational and intellectual background of American astronomers, 1825–1875” (Ph.D. diss., Bryn Mawr College, 1974). The pedagogical seminary of Santiago de Chile, founded in 1889, was staffed by Germans. By 1910 a number of German scientists found their way to the University of Missouri, and before the First World War astronomer Kurt Laves went to the University of Chicago and physicist Max Abraham, briefly, to the University of Illinois.

Pfetsch Frank , “Scientific organisation and science policy in imperial Germany, 1871–1914”, Minerva, viii (1970), 557–80, p. 562.

Braudel , op. cit. (ref. 8), ii, 826.

Institut für Geophysik, Göttingen. “Samoa Obs. Korresp. Samoa seit 1/1/1912–1/1/1913.” Solf to Observatory curators, 27 December 1911.

ibid. “Samoa Observ. Korrespondenz mit Samoa seit 1/1/1913 bis Juni 1913.” Angenheister to Hermann Wagner, 18 February 1913; “Samoa Observ. Korresp. mit dem K. Gouverneur Apia.” Solf to Observatory curators, 6 February 1913.

Zentrales Staatsarchiv Merseburg. Rep. 76, Va, Sekt. 6, Titl. IV, Bd XXIII. Foreign Office to Kultusministerium, 3 April 1911.

ibid. Hilmar Baron von dem Bussche-Haddenhausen to Bethmann-Hollweg, 12 August 1911.

Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv Freiburg i. B. RM 3/v. 7001. Crull to Bethmann-Hollweg, 21 July 1913.

ibid. Meyer-Waldeck's remarks are located together with a letter to him from a Dr Praefke, 15 December 1912.

Reicke Klein , Schwarzschild, Voigt, Wiechert, and Wagner to the Kultusministerium, 14 July 1908 (circulating draft). The document is squirreled away in the attic of the Sternwarte der Universität Göttingen.

Thornton , op. cit. (ref. 9), 188.

Institut für Geophysik, Göttingen. “Administrator.” Angenheister to Emil Wiechert, 26 December 1919 (draft).

Zentrales Staatsarchiv Potsdam. Reichskolonialamt 6214. Carl Runge and Emil Wiechert to the Colonial Office, 13 August 1919, where they cite the testimony of Ada Osbahr.

Institut für Geophysik, Göttingen. “ Wiechert E. Akten Persön .” Samoa curators to Kultusminister, 11 August 1919 (draft), the author of which is evidently Emil Wiechert.

Gaviola , op. cit. (ref. 54), 382 (error for infidelium).

Library Bancroft , University of California, Berkeley. Papers of George Carl Jaffe. Gans to Jaffé, 18 January 1922.

Universitätsbibliothek, Heidelberg. Heid. HS. 3695, Dl and E. Hartmann to Max Wolf, 26 January 1929.

ibid. Hartmann to Wolf, 27 February 1929.

du Bois-Reymond Marie , op. cit. (ref. 79).

Memmi A. , Portrait du colonisé (1957; Paris, 1973), 33.

Pyenson Lewis , Neohumanism and the persistence of pure mathematics in Wilhelmian Germany (American Philosophical Society, Memoirs, Philadelphia, 1981).

The standard reference is: Manegold Karl-Heinz , Universität, technische Hochschule und Industrie: Ein Beitrag zur Emanzipation der Technik im 19. Jahrhundert unter besonderer Berücksichtigung Felix Kleins (Berlin, 1970).

Thornton , op. cit. (ref. 9), 161–2.

Thornton A. P. , Imperialism in the twentieth century (Minneapolis, 1977), 147, citing A. W. Singham.

Small Henry , “A citation index for physics: 1920–1929” (Philadelphia, 1980), manuscript of 35 pages [Final report on National Science Foundation grant SOC 77–14957].

Slotnarin G. , “Gegenwärtigen Zustand der deutschen Eisenbahnen”, in: Festschrift zum Gedenken des 20-jährigen Bestehens der staatlichen Tung-Chi Universität (Woosung, 1928), 169–77, p. 175.

Steiner G. , After Babel: Aspects of language and translation (London, 1975), 473.

Kuhn T. S. , “Tradition mathématique et tradition expérimentale dans le développement de la physique”, Annales: Economies, sociétés, civilisations, xxx (1975), 975–98. An English version appears in the Journal of interdisciplinary history, vii (1976), 1–31.