“Who the Guys Were”: Prosopography in the History of Science

Godefroy J. used the word prosopography to describe the appendices of his edition of the Codex Theodosianus (1743). Nicolet C. , “Prosopographie et histoire sociale: Rome et l'Italie á l'époque républicaine”, Annales: économies, sociétés, civilisations (henceforth Annales ESC), xxv (1970), 1209–28, p. 1210, note 3. The unreliable historical sketch provided in the Oxford English dictionary traces use of the word prosopography to description of the physical features of a group of allegorical or real people. For an example of this genre, see Galle Philippe (1537–1612), Prosopographia, sive Virtvtvm, animi corporis, bonorvm externorvm … (Antwerp, n.d).

Klebs E. Dessau H. von Rohden P. , eds, Prosopographia Imperii Romani (Berlin, 1893); Kirchner J. E. , Prosopographia attica (Berlin, 1901–3), 2 vols; Poralla P. , “Prosopographie der Lakedaimonier bis auf die zeit Alexanders des Grossen” (diss., Breslau Univ., 1913); Paulus F. , “Prosopographie der Beamten des ARSINOITES NOMOS in der Zeit von Augustus bis auf Diokletian” (diss., Greifswald Univ., 1914).

In 1939 R. Flacelière and J. and L. Roberts began to include a section entitled “prosopographie” in their annual critical review, “Bulletin épigraphique”, in the Revue des études grecques.

Momigliano A. , Journal of Roman studies, xxx (1940), 75–80, p. 77.

McGuire J. E. , “Newton and the demonic furies: Some current problems and approaches in the history of science”, History of science, xi (1973), 21–48, pp. 22–27.

Broughton T. R. S. “Senate and senators of the Roman Republic: The prosopographical approach”, in Temporini H. , ed., Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. i, I. Von den Anfängen Roms bis zum Ausgang der Republik (Berlin, 1972), 250–65, p. 251. See also Den Boer W. , “Die prosopographische Methode in der modernen Geschichtsschreibung der Hohen Römischen Kaiserzeit”, Mnemosyne, xxii (1969), 268–80; Chastagnol A. , “La prosopographie, méthode de recherche sur l'histoire du Bas-Empire”, Annales ESC, xxv (1970), 1229–45; Sublet J. , “La prosopographie arabe”, Annales ESC, xxv (1970), 1236–9; Jones A. H. M. Martindale J. R. Morris J. , The prosopography of the later Roman Empire, i (Cambridge, 1971); Davies J. K. , Athenian propertied families, 600–300 B.C. (Oxford, 1971), reviewed by Paul MacKendrick in Gnomon, xlv (1973), 508–11; Jarnut J. , Prosopographische und sozialgeschichtliche Studien zum Langobardenreich in Italien (568–774) (Bonn, 1972).

Aguilera Julián Marías , Generations. An historical method , trans. Raley H. C. (University, Alabama, 1970), 36.

Stone L. , “Prosopography”, Daedalus, c (Winter, 1971), 46–79.

Neale J. E. , “The biographical approach to history”, Essays in Elizabethan history (New York, 1958), 224–34, p. 228.

Braudel F. , “Histoire et sciences sociales: La longue durée”, Annales ESC, xiii (1958), 725–53. Marczewski J. , “Quantitative history”, Journal of contemporary history, iii (1968), 179–92.

See Jensen R. , “Quantitative collective biography: An application to metropolitan élites”, in Swierenga R. P. (ed.), Quantification in American history: Theory and research (New York, 1970), 388–405; Folsom Burton W. II , “The collective biography as a research tool”, Mid-America, liv (1972), 108–22; a sense of the enormous literature in American history may be obtained from the essays in Drake M. (ed.), Applied historical studies: An introductory reader (London, 1973).

Rabb T. K. , Enterprise and empire. Merchant and gentry investment in the expansion of England, 1575–1630 (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), 8.

Daumard A. and Furet F. , “Méthodes de l'histoire sociale. Les archives notariales et la mécanographie”, Annales ESC, xiv (1959), 676–93.

Furet F. , “Quantitative history”, Daedalus, c (Winter, 1971), 151–67. Tilly L. A. , “Materials of the quantitative history of France since 1789”, in Lorwin V. and Price J. M. (eds), The dimensions of the past (New Haven, 1972), 127–55. Goubert P. , “Historical demography and the reinterpretation of early modern French history: A research review”, Journal of interdisciplinary history, i (1970), 37–48.

Zeldin T. , France, 1848–1945, i: Ambition, love and politics (Oxford, 1973), 6.

Tilly C. , “Quantification in history, as seen from France”, in Lorwin V. and Price J. M. (eds), The dimensions of the past (New Haven, 1972), 93–125, p. 95.

Basalla G. “Observations on the present status of history of science in the United States”, Isis, lxvi (1975), 467–70, pp. 467–8.

Works that treat nineteenth century collective biographers include: Lazarsfeld P. F. , “Notes on the history of quantification in sociology”, Isis, lii (1961), 277–333; Oberschall A. , Empirical social research in Germany, 1848–1914 (Paris, 1965); Young R. M. , “Scholarship and the history of the behavioural sciences”, History of science, v (1966), 1–51; Abrams P. , The origins of British sociology, 1834–1914 (Chicago, 1968); Weber G. , “Science and society in nineteenth century anthropology”, History of science, xii (1974), 260–83.

de Candolle A. , Histoire des sciences et des savants depuis deux siécles suivie d'autre études sur des sujets scientifiques en particulier sur la sélection dans l'espèce humaine (Geneva, 1873), 83.

de Solla Price D. J. , Little science, big science (New York, 1963), 34–36; Gridgeman N. T. , “Francis Galton”, Dictionary of scientific biography, v (New York, 1972), 265–7; Cowan R. S. , “Francis Galton's statistical ideas: The influence of eugenics”, Isis, lxiii (1972), 509–28; Russ A. R. , “Galton and the birth of differential psychology and eugenics: Social, political, and economic forces”, Journal of the history of behavioral sciences, xii (1976), 47–58.

Galton F. , Hereditary genius. An inquiry into its laws and consequences (London, 1869), preface.

ibid.

ibid., 349.

ibid., 352.

Pilet P. E. , “Alphonse de Candolle”, Dictionary of scientific biography, iii (New York, 1971), 42–43; Mikulinsky S. , “Alphonse de Candolle's Histoire des sciences et des savants depuis deux siècles and its historic significance”, Organon, x (1974), 223–43. Candolle De , op. cit. (ref. 19), 94.

De Candolle , ibid., 92.

Beard C. A. , An economic interpretation of the constitution of the United States (New York, 1913).

Jacoby P. , Etudes sur la sélection dans ses rapports avec l'hérédité chez l'homme (Paris, 1881).

Odin A. , Genèse des grands hommes. Gens de lettres français modernes (2 vols, Paris, 1895).

Maas F. , “Ueber die Herkunftsbedingungen der geistigen Führer”, Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, xli (1915/16), 144–86.

Ellis H. , A study of British genius (London, 1904), 6.

Möbius P. J. , Ueber die Anlage zur Mathematik. Ausgewählte Werke, viii (Leipzig, 1907).

Stone L. , op. cit. (ref. 8), 49.

Woods F. A. , The influence of monarchs: Steps in a new science of history (New York, 1913).

ibid., 2.

Woods F. A. “Historiometry as an exact science”, Science, xxxii (1911), 568–74, reprinted in The influence of monarchs, 407–17.

For example, MacLean A. H. H. , Where we get our best men. Some statistics showing their nationalities, countries, towns, schools, universities, and other antecedents, 1837–1897 (London, 1900); Heymans H. and Wiersma E. , “Beiträge zur speciellen Psychologie auf Grund einer Massenuntersuchung”, Zeitschrift fúr Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, xiii (1906), 81–127; van Hoorn D. , “Bijdrage tot de psychologie van den veldheer” (diss., Groningen Univ., 1910); Cattell J. M. , “A statistical study of American men of science”, and “A further statistical study of American men of science”, American men of science (New York, 1910), 537–96. Cattell's work was used by Henry Cabot Lodge to support racist immigration laws. See Sokal M. M. , “The education and psychological career of James McKeen Cattell, 1860–1904” (diss., Case-Western Reserve Univ., 1972), 528–39.

Silverman S. M. , “Parental loss and scientists”, Science studies, iv (1974), 259–64; Woodward W. R. , “Scientific genius and loss of a parent”, ibid., 265–79.

See the suggestive analysis by Forman Paul , “Weimar culture, causality, and quantum theory, 1918–1927: Adaptation by German physicists and mathematicians to a hostile intellectual environment”, Historical studies in the physical sciences, iii (1971), 1–115.

Keylor W. R. , Academy and community. The foundation of the French historical profession (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), 210–15.

Lefebvre G. , La naissance de l'historiographie moderne (Paris, 1971); Iggers G. G. , New directions in European historiography (Middletown, Conn., 1975), 43–79.

Price J. M. , “Recent quantitative work in history: A survey of the main trends”, History and theory, Beiheft ix (1969), 1–13, p. 1.

Carr E. H. , What is history? (London, 1964), 39.

Hexter J. H. , Doing history (Bloomington, Ind., 1971), 80.

Namier Julia , Lewis Namier. A biography (London, 1971).

ibid., 167.

ibid., 187.

Namier L. , The structure of politics at the accession of George III (2 vols, London, 1929), i, p. vii.

Brooke J. , “Namier and Namierism”, History and theory, iii (1969), 331–47, p. 333.

Sorokin P. A. , Leaves from a Russian diary, and thirty years after (Boston, 1950); Sorokin P. A. , A long journey. The autobiography of Pitirim A. Sorokin (New Haven, 1963).

Merton R. K. and Barber B. , “Sorokin's formulations in the sociology of science”, in Hallen G. C. and Prasad R. (eds), Sorokin and society. Essays in honour of Professor Pitirim A. Sorokin (Agra, 1972), 85–124, p. 87. Merton and Barber's essay was first published in Allen P. J. (ed.), Pitirim A. Sorokin in review (Chapel Hill, 1963), 332–70.

Brinton C. , “Socio-astrology”, The southern review, ii (1937), 243–66.

Guthrie E. P. , “Sorokin: Counselor to reaction”, Science and society, iii (1939), 229–38. In his idealist phase, DuBois W. E. B. lauded Sorokin: Coulborn R. and DuBois W. E. B. , “Mr. Sorokin's system”, Journal of modern history, xiv (1942), 500–21.

Sorokin P. A. and Merton R. K. , “The course of Arabian intellectual development: A study in method”, Isis, xxii (1935), 516–24.

Merton R. K. , “Fluctuations in the rate of industrial invention”, Quarterly journal of economics, xlix (1935), 454–74.

Merton R. K. , Science, technology and society in seventeenth century England , published as vol. iv, pt 2 of Osiris: Studies on the history and philosophy of science, and on the history of learning (1938, reprinted New York, 1970).

ibid., 114.

Shapin S. and Thackray A. , “Prosopography as a research tool in history of science: The British scientific community, 1700–1900”, History of science, xii (1974), 1–28.

ibid., 7.

ibid., 13.

Thackray A. , “Natural knowledge in a cultural context: The Manchester model”, American historical review, lxxix (1974), 672–709, p. 678.

ibid., 678.

ibid., 686–7.

ibid., 693.

ibid., 696, 705.

ibid., 698.

Shapin S. , Isis, lxvi (1975), 288–9, p. 288, in a review of Orange A. D. , Philosophers and provincials. The Yorkshire Philosophical Society from 1822 to 1844 (York, 1973).

Shapin S. , “The Pottery Philosophical Society, 1819–35: An examination of the cultural uses of provincial science”, Science studies, ii (1972), 311–36; “Property, patronage, and the politics of science: The founding of the Royal Society of Edinburgh”, British journal for the history of science, vii (1974), 1–41; “The audience for science in eighteenth century Edinburgh”, History of science, xii (1974), 95–121; “Phrenological knowledge and the social structure of early nineteenth-century Edinburgh”, Annals of science, xxxii (1975), 219–43.

Cantor G. N. , “A critique of Shapin's social interpretation of the Edinburgh debate”, Annals of science, xxxii (1975), 245–56; Glen R. , American historical review, lxxx (1975), 203–4, with A. Thackray's reply, ibid., 204–5.

Noel Annan has argued that a large number of Britain's nineteenth century intelligentsia were related by birth or marriage. Annan believes that family influences help explain the conformist nature of British intellectuals. Annan N. , “The intellectual aristocracy”, in Plumb J. H. (ed.), Studies in social history (London, 1955), 241–87.

Nathan Reingold has identified three groups in the pre-1860 American scientific community: researchers “characterized by a single-minded devotion to research”, practitioners “wholly or largely employed in scientific or science-related occupations”, and cultivators who approached science as learned amateurs. Reingold N. , “Definitions and speculations: The professionalization of science in America in the nineteenth century”, in Oleson A. and Brown S. C. (eds), The pursuit of knowledge in the early American republic: American scientific and learned societies from colonial times to the Civil War (Baltimore, 1976), 33–69.

Studies of powerful scientific societies include: Ornstein M. , The rôle of scientific societies in the seventeenth century (Chicago, 1928); Brown H. , Scientific organizations in seventeenth century France (Baltimore, 1934); Hahn R. , The anatomy of a scientific institution. The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666–1803 (Berkeley, 1971); Crosland M. , The Society of Arcueil. A view of French science at the time of Napoleon (Cambridge, Mass., 1967); Plaisance M. , “Une première affirmation de la politique culturelle de Côme Ier; la transformation de l'Accadémie des ‘humidi’ en académie florentine”, in Rochon A. (ed.), Les écrivans et le pouvoir en Italie à l'époque de la Renaissance, i (Paris, 1973), 360–438; see also the review by Roche D. , “Sciences et pouvoirs dans la France du XVIIIe siècle, 1666–1803”, Annales ESC, xxix (1974), 738–48.

Several less formal scientific societies have been studied: Schofield R. S. , The Lunar Society of Birmingham. A social history of provincial science and industry in eighteenth century England (London, 1963); MacLeod R. , “The X-Club: A social network of science in late Victorian England”, Notes and records of the Royal Society of London, xxiv (1969), 305–22; Jensen J. Vernon , “The X-Club: A fraternity of Victorian scientists”, The British journal for the history of science, v (1970), 63–72.

Wertheimer D. , “The Victoria Institute, 1865–1919. A study in collective biography meant as an introduction to the conflict of science and religion after Darwin” (M.A. essay, Univ. of Toronto, 1971). Professor Wertheimer asks that inquiries concerning the essay be addressed to him, Department of History, University of British Columbia, 2075 Wesbrook Place, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1W5, Canada.

Hoppen K. Theodore , The common scientist in the seventeenth century. A study of the Dublin Philosophical Society, 1683–1708 (London, 1970).

Berman M. , Social change and scientific organization: The Royal Institution, 1799–1810 (diss., Johns Hopkins Univ., 1971); Berman M. , “The early years of the Royal Institution, 1799–1810: A re-evaluation”, Science studies, ii (1972), 205–40; Berman M. , “Hegemony and the amateur tradition in British Science”, Journal of social history, viii (1975), 30–50.

Roche D. , “Milieux académiques provinciaux et société des lumières. Trois académies provinciales au 18e siècle: Bordeaux, Dijon, Châlons sur Marne”, in Bollème G. , Livre et société dans la France du XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1965), 93–184.

ibid., 98.

ibid., 107.

ibid., 166.

Lexis W. , Die Universitäten im Deutschen Reich (Berlin, 1904); Eulenburg F. , “Die Frequenz der deutschen Universitäten von ihrer Gründung bis zur Gegenwart”, Akademie der Wissenschaften. Leipzig. Philologisch-Historiche Klasse. Abhandlungen, xxiv (1904), no. 2.

Jenkins H. and Jones D. C. , “Social class of Cambridge University alumni of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries”, British journal of sociology, i (1950), 93–116.

Hans N. , New trends in education in the eighteenth century (London, 1951).

ibid., 31–36.

See Anderson C. Arnold and Schnaper Miriam , School and society in England: Social backgrounds of Oxford and Cambridge students (Annals of American Research, Washington, d.c., 1952) [I have been unable to consult this work]; Roach J. P. C. , “Victorian universities and the national intelligentsia”, Victorian studies, iii (1959), 131–50; Simon J. , “The social origins of Cambridge students, 1603–1640”, Past and present, no. xxvi (1963), 58–67, a commentary on Curtis M. H. , Oxford and Cambridge in transition, 1558–1642 (Oxford, 1959); Rothblatt S. , The revolution of the dons. Cambridge and society in Victorian England (London, 1968); Bullough V. L. and Bullough B. , “The causes of the Scottish medical renaissance of the eighteenth century”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xlv (1971), 13–28; Bullough V. L. and Bullough B. , “Historical sociology: Intellectual achievement in eighteenth century Scotland”, British journal of sociology, xxiv (1973), 418–30; Sanderson Michael , The universities and British industry, 1850–1970 (London, 1972); Engel A. J. , “From clergyman to don: The rise of the academic profession in nineteenth century Oxford” (diss., Princeton Univ., 1975); Morrell J. B. , “The patronage of mid-Victorian science in the University of Edinburgh”, Science studies, iii (1973), 353–88; Stone L. , “The size and composition of the Oxford student body, 1580–1909”, in Stone L. (ed.), The university in society, i. Oxford and Cambridge from 14th to early 19th century (Princeton, 1975), 3–110.

von Ferber C. , Die Entwicklung des Lehrkörpers in deutschen Universitäten und Hochschulen, 1865–1954 (Göttingen, 1956), published as vol. iii in the series edited by Plessner H. , Untersuchungen zur Lage der deutschen Hochschullehrer.

Goodrich H. B. and Knapp R. H. , Origins of American scientists (New York, 1952).

Joncich G. , “Scientists and the schools of the nineteenth century: The case of American physicists”, American quarterly, xviii (1966), 667–85.

See Chartier R. , “Un recruitement scolaire au XVIIIe siècle. L'école royale du génie de Mézières”, Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, xx (1973), 353–75; Chisick H. , “Bourses d'études et mobilité sociale en France à la veille de la Revolution. Bourses et boursiers du collège Louis-le-Grand (1762–1789)”, Annales ESC, xxx (1975), 1562–84; Julia D. and Pressly P. , “La population scolaire en 1789. Les extravagances statistiques du Ministre Villemain”, Annales ESC, xxx (1975), 1516–61; Frijhoff W. and Julia D. , Ecole et société en France sous l'Ancien Régime (Paris, 1975), reviewed by J.-C. Chamboredon in Annales ESC, xxxi (1976), 146–52; Chartier R. Compère M.M. , and Julia D. , L'éducation en France du XVIe au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1976).

Daumard A. , “Les élèves de l'Ecole Polytechnique de 1815 à 1848”, Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, v (1958), 226–34; Bradley M. , “Scientific education for a new society. The Ecole polytechnique, 1795–1830”, History of education, v (1976), 11–24.

Seabold R. , “Normalien alumni in the Facultés and Lycées of France from 1871 to 1910, Promotions 1831–1869” (diss., Univ. of California at Los Angeles, 1970). Another recent study is: Smith R. J. , “The Ecole Normale Supérieure in the Third Republic: A study of the classes of 1890–1904” (diss., Univ. of Pennsylvania, 1967).

Seabold R. , ibid., 3.

ibid., 45–76.

ibid., 40.

ibid., 1.

ibid., 142–54.

Rabb T. K. , op. cit. (ref. 12).

Chevalier L. , “A reactionary view of urban history”, Times literary supplement, 8 September 1966, 796–7.

Lannoy G. , “La renaissance de la communauté scientifique flamande (1890–1940)” (M.Sc. diss., Univ. of Montreal, 1976).

Clark T. N. , Prophets and patrons. The French university and the emergence of the social sciences (Cambridge, Mass., 1973); see the review by Sevier J. , Isis , lxvi (1975), 285–7.

McCormmach R. , “Editor's foreword”, Historical studies in the physical sciences, iii (1971), ix–xxiv, p. ix.

For example, Hindle B. , The pursuit of science in revolutionary America, 1735–1789 (Chapel Hill, 1956); de B. Beaver D. , “The American scientific community, 1800–60: A statistical-historical study” (diss., Yale Univ., 1966); Daniels G. H. , American science in the Age of Jackson (New York, 1968); Wilson J. H. , “Dancing dogs of the colonial period: Women scientists”, Early American literature, vii (1973), 225–35. A notable exception is Marc Rothenberg, “The educational and intellectual background of American astronomers, 1825–1875” (diss., Bryn Mawr Coll., 1974).

Elliott C. A. , “The American scientist in antebellum society: A quantitative view”, Social studies of science, v (1975), 93–108.

Nathan Reingold provides a critical summary of quantitative measurements of the nineteenth century American scientific community in op. cit. (ref. 71), 55–64.

Hufbauer K. , “The formation of the German chemical community, 1700–1795” (diss., Univ. of California at Berkeley, 1970), and Hufbauer's related article, “Social support for chemistry in Germany during the eighteenth century: How and why did it change?” Historical studies in the physical sciences, iii (1971), 205–31.

Hufbauer K. , “Chemistry's enlightened audience”, Studies on Voltaire and the eighteenth century, cliii (1976), 1069–85, p. 1074.

Forman P. Heilbron J. L. Weart S. , “Physics circa 1900. Personnel, funding, and productivity of the academic establishments”, Historical studies in the physical sciences, v (1975), 1–185.

Koizumi K. , “The emergence of Japan's first physicists, 1868–1900”, Historical studies in the physical sciences, vi (1975), 3–108.

Sevier J. , “The founding of the Cavendish Laboratory: A case study in the nineteenth century rise of science” (diss., Univ. of California at Berkeley, 1974). Some of Sevier's results support the assertions in Holt B. W. G. , “Social aspects of the emergence of chemistry as an exact science: The British chemical profession”, British journal of sociology, xxi (1970), 181–99.

Ibid., ch. 3, “Mid-Victorian physicists as Träger”.

de S. Price D. J. , “The mathematical practitioners”, Journal of the Institute of Navigation, viii (1955), 12–16, p. 14.

ibid., 12.

For example, de Boyer de Choisy H. , Les étudiants en médecine de Paris au XVIe siècle. Essai historique (Versailles, 1905); Saulnier V. L. , “Médecins de Montpellier au temps de Rabelais”, Bibliothèque d'humanisme et renaissance, xvix (1957), 424–79.

Meyer J. , “Le personnel médical en Bretagne à la fin du XVIIIe siècle”, in Desaive J.-P. , Médecins, climat et épidémies à la fin du XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1972), 173–224; Goubert J.-P. , Malades et médecins en Bretagne, 1770–1790 (Paris, 1974).

Raach J. H. , “The English country doctor in the Province of Canterbury” (diss., Yale Univ., 1941). The only reference to Raach's dissertation that I have found is: Roberts R. S. , “The personnel and practice of medicine in Tudor and Stuart England”, Medical history, vi (1962), 363–82; viii (1964), 217–34. Raach has published some of his results in the book, A directory of English country physicians (London, 1963).

Raach J. H. , “The English country doctor …”, 108–9.

ibid., 325.

ibid., 91, ref. 50.

ibid., 91. The social origins of eldest and younger sons in the law profession have been delineated in the suggestive study of Lucas Paul , “A collective biography of students and barristers of Lincoln's Inn, 1680–1804”, Journal of modern history, xlvi (1974), 226–61.

Bloch M. , The royal touch. Sacred monarchy and scrofula in England and France, trans. Anderson J. E. (London, 1973), 235.

ibid., 196.

Darnton R. , “In search of the Enlightenment: Recent attempts to create a social history of ideas”, Journal of modern history, xliii (1971), 113–32; “The high Enlightenment and the low life of literature in Pre-revolutionary France”, Past and present, no. 51 (1971), 81–115; “The Grub-Street style of revolution: J.-P. Brissot, police spy”, Journal of modern history, xl (1968), 301–27; “The Encyclopédie wars of pre-revolutionary France”, American historical review, lxxviii (1973), 1311–52. On lesser Enlightenment luminaries, see Roche D. , “Encyclopédistes et académiciens. Essai sur la diffusion sociale des Lumières”, in Bouyssy M. T. , Livre et société dans la France du XVIIIe siècle, ii (Paris, 1970), 73–89; Chartier R. and Roche D. , “Le livre. Un changement de perspective”, in LeGoff J. and Nora P. , Faire de l'histoire, i (Paris, 1974), 115–36.

Furet F. “L'ensemble ‘histoire’”, in Bouyssy M. T. , op. cit. (ref. 122), 101–20; Fontana A. , “Sémantique et histoire”, in ibid ., 121–49; Fontana A. , “L'ensemble ‘méthode’”, in ibid., 151–228.

Comment by an anonymous referee on an earlier version of this essay.

Bloch M. , The historian's craft, trans. Putnam P. (New York, 1953), 27.