Essay Review: The Apparatus of Science: The Apparatus of Science at Harvard 1766–1800. Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments,Harvard University

Sources for the study of early instrument-making are given in Maddison Francis , “Early astronomical and mathematical instruments. A brief survey of sources and modern studies”, History of science, ii (1963) 17–50.

Claims that the Portuguese discovered America before Columbus are examined in Samuel Morison E. , Portuguese voyages to America in the fifteenth century (Harvard historical monographs XIV) (Cambridge, Mass. 1940). For a comprehensive survey of the instruments available to the Portuguese navigators, see Maddison Francis , Medieval scientific instruments and the development of navigational instruments in the XVth and XVIth centuries (Agrupamento de Estudos de Cartografia antiga XXX) (Coimbra, 1970).

Raeder Hans Strömgren Elis Strömgren Bengt , transl. & eds, Tycho Brahe's description of his instruments and scientific work as given in Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica (Copenhagen, 1946).

The figures for the accuracy of astronomical angular measure have been taken from a graph prepared by H. Mineur and published in Pledge H. T. , Science since 1500. A short history of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology (London, 1939), 291. Tycho Brahe's own estimation of the accuracy to which his quadrants could be read was 20 seconds, and for the large mural quadrant 10 seconds, but this does not necessarily mean that this accuracy was achieved. Mineur's graph should perhaps, be reworked. It is surprising that so little work has been done on the matter of increasing accuracy of measurement through the centuries, since this is fundamental to the development of science. The only other graphs known to me are: Accuracy of measurement of mass by Skinner F. G. in Pledge , op. cit., 126; accuracy of time measurement by Ward F. A. B. , ibid., 70, brought up to date in Ward F. A. B. , Handbook of the collection illustrating time measurement. Part I: Historical review (London, 1961), 8; increase in aperture and resolution of the microscope in Turner G. L'E. , “The microscope as a technical frontier in science”, Historical aspects of microscopy, eds, Bradbury S. Turner G. L'E. (Cambridge, 1967), 188f.

Marshall John (1663–1725) supplied a fish-plate with his microscopes, from about 1693, for the express purpose of viewing the circulation of the blood in the tail fin. Subsequently, nearly all microscopes were issued with a fish-plate, or a frog-plate, as one of the accessories. The power of tradition was such, that this gadget was included in sets of accessories produced in the 1890s.

See, for example, Waters David W. , The art of navigation in England in Elizabethan and early Stuart times (London, 1958); and Pepper Jon V. , “The study of Thomas Harriot's manuscripts. II. Harriot's unpublished papers”, History of science, vi (1967) 17–40.

See Gunter's R. T. preface to The theodelitus and topographical instrument of Leonard Digges of University College, Oxford. Described by his son Thomas Digges in 1571. Reprinted from Longimetra , the fyrst booke of Pantometria (Old Ashmolean Reprints IV) (Oxford, 1927).

For some sources, see Maddison , op. cit. (n. 1 above), 27. See also Osley A. S. , Mercator. A monograph on the lettering of maps, etc. in the sixteenth century Netherlands with a fascimile and translation of his treatise on the italic hand and a translation of Ghim's Vita Mercatoris (London, 1969).

The original text of Wallis's memoir, from Bodleian Library MS Smith 31 pp. 38–50, has been transcribed and compared with a curtailed first draft, BM MS Add 32499 f, 375^r-376^v, by Scriba Christoph J. , “The autobiography of John Wallis, F.R.S.”, Notes and records of the Royal Society of London, xxv (1970) 17–46. The quotations are from pp. 39f.

The annual elections of the Royal Society were held on St Andrew's day, and John Aubrey quotes Sir William Petty as saying, “I would rather have had it on St Thomas day, for he would not beleeve till he had seen and putt his fingers into the Holes, according to the Motto Nullius in verba” Dick Oliver Lawson , ed., Aubrey's Brief Lives (London, 1962), 305.

Weld Charles R. , A history of the Royal Society, with memoirs of the Presidents (London, 1848), i, 146.

Idem, 300. See also Hoppen K. T. , The common scientist in the seventeenth century. A study of the Dublin Philosophical Society 1683–1708 (London, 1970), 202f. where Petty's rules for the Society, taken from BM MS Add 4811, f. 48v, are printed as appendix B.

For the development of this trade, see Turner G. L'E. , “The history of optical instruments. A brief survey of sources and modern studies”, History of science, viii (1969) 53–93 14.

For a list of this apparatus, see Cohen I. Bernard , Some early tools of American science. An account of the early scientific instruments and mineralogical and biological collections in Harvard University (Cambridge, Mass., 1950), appendix I, 133–144.

See for example Bedini Silvio A. , “The evolution of science museums”, Technology and culture, vi (1965) 1–29. Short accounts and lists of French eighteenth-century collections are given in Taton René ed., Enseignement et diffusion des sciences en France au XVIII^e siècle (Histoire de la pensée XI) (Paris, 1964), 637–645 (physics), 647–652 (chemistry), 659–712 (natural history).

Gersaint E. F. , Catalogue raisonné d'une collection considerable de diverses curiosités en tous genres, contenues dans les cabinets de feu Monsieur Bonnier de la Mosson … (Paris, 1744). An illustrated account is given by Bourdier F. , “L'extravagant cabinet de Bonnier”, Connaissance des arts (August, 1959), 52–60.

Turner G. L'E. , “The auction sales of the Earl of Bute's instruments, 1793”, Annals of science, xxiii, no. 3 (Sept. 1967) 213–242.

For a review of the lectures and demonstrations given at the end of the seventeenth century and during the early years of the eighteenth, see chap. 1, “Scientific prelude to the Industrial Revolution” in Musson A. E. Robinson Eric , Science and technology in the Industrial Revolution (Manchester, 1969). For the courses given at Harvard during this period, see Cohen , op. cit., chap. 2, “Scientific instruments at Harvard before the fire of 1764”.

Both Hauksbees advertised in the Spectator during January 1712, junior in nos. 268, 270, 272, and senior in nos. 275, 277, 279. The former was assisted by Humphry Ditton whereas the latter does not name the lecturer, but it was probably Whiston. This advertisement runs as follows: “A Course of Experiments in order to demonstrate the Laws of the Gravitations of Fluids. The various Properties of the Air in relation to its Weight, Spring, Necessity of its Presence in the Conservation of Life, and Production of Flame and Sound. Together with several new Experiments touching Light and Electricity produceable on the Attrition of Bodies. Experiments concerning the different Refraction of a Ray of Light passing thro' different Fluids. Experiments shewing the Effect of Viciated Air on the Lives of Animals. Experiments touching the Transparency of Several Bodies in the Dark under the Circumstances of a Vacuum and Attrition, such as Sulphur, Sealing-wax and Pitch. The Nature of Vision explained; and the various Properties of Optick-Glasses demonstrated. Will begin at Mr. Fra. Hauksbee's Sen. F.R.S. in Hind-Court, Fleetstreet on Monday the 21st Instant; where Subscriptions are taken in, and printed Accounts more at large given. He being the only Person to whom the late Improvements are owing. N.B. There will be Lectures explaining the several Heads”.

Crommelin C. A. , Beschrijvende catalogus der historische versameling van natuurkundige instrumenten in het Natuurkundig Laboratorium der Rijks-Universitit te Leiden (Leyden, 1926), 18.

Forbes R. J. , ed., Martinus van Marum: Life and work, i (Haarlem, 1969). Vol iv in this series, by Levere T. H. Turner G. L'E. , will be a descriptive catalogue of Van Marum's instruments.

Trencher design, Bodleian Library, Douce prints e 38; brass, Pimperne Church, Dorsetshire.

At least one carries an advertisement engraved on the folding foot: “Microscopes, Telescopes & all sorts of Optick Glasses Improv'd & made to ye greatest perfection by EDM: CULPEPER. MATHEMATICAL Instruments of all sorts in Gold Silver Brass Ivory & Wood accurately divided & made to ye greatest perfection Spectacles & Reading Glasses in great Variety of Convex and Concave Glasses also Load Stones Set in Gold & Silver &c”.

Turner G. L'E. , “Decorative tooling on seventeenth and eighteenth century microscopes and telescopes”, Physis, viii (1966) 99–128.

Turner G. L'E. , “James Short, F.R.S., and his contribution to the construction of reflecting telescopes”, Notes and records of the Royal Society of London, xxiv (1969) 91–108.

Idem, 101. Wheatland, 17, quotes from a letter of Franklin to Winthrop that supports my view. Franklin explains that Short had “finished the material parts that required his own hand” and that the telescope needed only “something about the mounting, that was to have been done by another workman”. A printer's error has dated the letter 1767 instead of 1768.

For a comment on Dollond's workshop, see Bernoulli Jean , Lettres astronomique où l'on donne une idée de l'état actuel de l'astonomie pratique dans plusieurs villes de l'europe, (Berlin, 1771), 68f. “L'attelier de M. Dollond est très considérable; on y fait outre les lunettes, achromatiques & autres, d'excellens Télescopes Grégoriens, & en général presque tous les instrumens d'Optique & d'Astronomie en usage en Angleterre; mais ceux de ces derniers qui sont les plus précieux doivent se commander. Il faut remarquer cependant que les ouvrages en cuivre s'y sont un peu à la douzaine, & qu'on se trompe fort hors de l'Angleterre quand on s'imagine qu'un instrument astronomique qui porte le nom de Dollond doit être excellent en tout point”.

Idem, 73.

The catalogue is in the same collection as that relating to the Bute sale, see Turner , op. cit. (n. 17).

Wheatland, 44, says William Jones (1763–1831) learnthis trade from Martin. The dates he gives for Jones, 1784–1838, are those of the firm W. & S. Jones.