The History of Optical Instruments

The story of how the microscopes from the King George III Collection became assimilated into the Crisp Collection late last century is told in Whipple [2].

While preparing my papers on James Short (Turner [15], [16]) I traced, with the help of others, the present whereabouts of 106 reflecting telescopes made by Short. These are to be found all over the world. The list of these instruments has not yet been published.

A catalogue of the Crisp sale in the Museum of the History of Science, Oxford, has been annotated by Lionel S. Day, who states that the catalogue descriptions were written by Court. For further details of the sale see Heywood. See also, note 1 above.

For a list of von Rohr's books, papers, lectures, etc., numbering 568 items, see Jahn–Jubelt K. , “Zusammenstellung der von Moritz v. Rohr veröffentlichten Arbeiten”, Forschungen zur Geschichte der Optik, iii, pt. 3 (Aug. 1943), 115–133. This list is an invaluable bibliography of the history of optics.

Exhibition of the works of industry of all nations 1851. Reports by the juries on the subjects in the thirty classes into which the Exhibition was divided (London, 1852), 521–530. The Society for Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce offered a gold medal in 1822, and still in 1845, for “flint glass free from veins, as dense and transparent as the best now in use, and quite fit for the purpose of opticians”; Abstract of proceedings and transactions session 1822–23, and 1845–46.

Holtzapffel Charles , Turning and mechanical manipulation, iii, “Abrasive and miscellaneous processes, which cannot be accomplished with cutting tools” (London, 1864).

See also Harting P. , Das Mikroskop. Theorie, Gebrauch, Geschichte und gegenwartiger Zustand desselben, Transl. Theile W. (Brunswick, 1859), 572 ff.

Nobert produced in 1851 an extremely simple proof of the wave theory by means of a glass plate with a series of diffraction gratings ruled on it; see Turner [11].

In the title of B. Martin, An essay on visual glasses, (vulgarly called spectacles). Wherein it is shown from the principles of optics, and the nature of the eye, that the common structure of those glasses is contrary to the rules of art, to the nature of things, & c. and very prejudicial to the eyes; the nature of vision in the eye explained, and glasses of a new construction proposed (London, 1758).

For an account of how science developed in Japan under the influence of both Chinese and Western science, and its relationship to economic and political conditions, see Tuge Hideomi , Historical development of science and technology in Japan (Series on Japanese life and culture, vol. V) (Tokyo, 1961). Three microscopes used in Japan are illustrated in figure 49.

Mayall J. Jun ., Cantor lectures on the microscope (London, 1886), also published in Journal of the Society of Arts (1886).

Lister J. J. , “On some properties in achromatic object-glasses applicable to the improvement of the microscope”. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London, cxx (1830) 187–200. For the background to the discovery see Lister Joseph , “Obituary Notice of the late Joseph Jackson Lister, F.R.S., Z.S., with special reference to his Labours in the Improvement of the Achromatic Microscope”, Monthly microscopical journal, iii (1870) 134–143. I have in preparation a paper on J. J. Lister's contribution to microscopy.

Nelson Edward Milles (1851–1938) was, perhaps, the last of the great amateur microscopists. He published well over 300 papers in the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society and in the Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club between 1881 and 1923. Many notes by him are in the English mechanic, and a few papers are to be found elsewhere. In this bibliography I have included only one paper by Nelson, which is in a lesser known journal. Articles on historic instruments and on the development of the microscope that appeared in the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society from 1878 to 1926 are listed in Disney, pp. 291–294, and this includes, of course, Nelson's contributions.

Terminology will be found to be inexact: a photomicrograph is a photograph of an object as enlarged under the microscope, but microphotograph is also used with this meaning. It would be better if the latter word were restricted to mean a very small photograph that is to be viewed under a microscope. Microphotographs were very popular during Victorian times, and J. B. Dancer produced a great many series of them; see Ardern, Dancer, Stirling.

The interesting Dollond microscope described in this paper is to be dated c. 1840, not 1750.

The contribution of German microscopists is, in spite of the title, the subject of Freund Hugo Berg Alexander , Geschichte der Mikroskopie. Leben und Werk grosser Forscher. Band i: Biologie (Frankfurt am Main, 1963). The authors have been accused of chauvinism by the reviewer in Archives d'histoire des sciences, xviii, nos. 70/71 (Jan.–June 1965) 140 f.

Harriot's observation of the moon on 26 July, 1609, with a telescope of magnification × 6, is probably the earliest recorded astronomical use of the telescope (Leconsfield MS 241, ix).

No. O. 71; previously in the Gabb Collection, no. B.57. This is not the place to consider this telescope in detail, but, briefly, it was attributed by Gabb to A. M. Schyrle de Rheita (1597–1660) on the basis of a small impressed monogram “MR” (= Maria Rheita!) with an eight-pointed star above the initials. Some ink figures on a draw-tube were read as “Ao. 1645–6”. I have carefully examined these figures and it is not clear that they represent a date at all. Exactly the same monogram and star appear on a similar, though smaller, telescope in the King George III Collection (Chaldecott [1], p. 48, no. 169), Science Museum, London, no. 1927–1171. Both of these telescopes are typical of the first half of the eighteenth century, and are possibly Italian.

No. O. 72; previously in the Gabb Collection, no. B.1. The telescope was exhibited by Gabb at the Optical Convention 1926 (catalogue [7], p. 297, no. H. 172). At the time it was said to have a positive objective and a negative ocular, the magnification being × 3. Court & von Rohr [2], p. 212, state that John Mayall once owned this telescope, when its focal length was 40 inches. They continue: “When it was sold by auction on the nth June, 1909, lenses were unfortunately missing and only the tube was left.” The present focal length is 72.5 cm., about 28 inches (private communication 12 Nov. 1965 from Lt.-Cdr. H. D. Howse, R. N.). It is possible, therefore, that the lenses are a modern replacement. The gold-tooled decoration on this telescope resembles French work; the focusing marks are labelled “Nahe, Weith, Oversichtig”.

D, “Curious extracts from old English books, with remarks which prove that the telescope, &c. were known in England much earlier than in any other country”, Philosophical magazine, xviii (1804) 245–256, xix (1804) 66–79. That J. E. Drinkwater was the pseudonymous author is stated by the editor in a footnote to Drinkwater J. E. , ‘Observations respecting the invention of the telescope’, Philosophical magazine, 3rd series, i (1832) 9–16.

Ahlström [1]. Ahlström Otto , Synvertyg från äldre tider. Katalog om fattemde synverktyg från tiden 1600-talets slut till 1900-talets början samt korta uppsatser om optikerhantverkets historia (Stockholm, 1943).

Ahlström [2]. Ahlström Otto , Glasögen i Nordiska Museet jämte en översikt av glasögentypernas utveckling (Stockholm, 1947).

Ahlström [3]. Ahlström Otto , “Chinese spectacles”, The optician, cxix, no. 3076 (17 March 1950) 201–208.

Ahlström [4]. Ahlström Otto , “Swedish Vikings used optical lenses”, idem, cxix, no. 3085 (19 May 1950) 459–462, 464, 469.

Ahlström [5]. Ahlström Otto , “The development of the optical profession in Sweden”, idem, cxix, no. 3087 (2 June 1950) 517–520.

Aldis. Aldis H. L. , “On the construction of photographic objectives”, The photographic journal, xxiv, no. 10 (June 1900) 291–299.

Allen. Allen Phyllis , “Problems connected with the development of the telescope (1609–1687)”, Isis, xxxiv (1943) 302–311.

Allodi [1]. Allodi Federico , Studi e ricerche sui microscopi Galileiani del Museo di storia della scienza, fascicolo I (Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza, Biblioteca II) (Florence, 1962).

Allodi [2]. Allodi Federico , I microscopi Culpeper di Norimberga (Florence, 1962).

American Optical Co. Three American microscope builders (Buffalo, N. Y.: American Optical Co., 1945).

Andrew. Andrew Llewelyn , “Some notes on the history of spectacles”, Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society, xlii (1927), 24 pp.

Angus-Butterworth. Angus-Butterworth L. M. , “Glass”, in A history of technology, ed. Singer C. , iv, “The Industrial Revolution c. 1750 to c. 1850” (Oxford, 1958), 358–378.

Anon [1]. “Dr Robert Koch on the Abbe Illuminator”, Watson's microscope record, no. 20 (May 1930) 16–18.

Anon [2]. “Ernst Abbe (1840–1905). The origin of a great optical industry”, Nature, cxlv (20 Jan. 1940) 89–91.

Ardern. Ardern L. L. , John Benjamin Dancer—originator of microphotography, (Library Association (N. W. Group) occasional paper no. 2) (London, 1960).

Arrighi. Arrighi Gino , “Lettere di G. B. Amici nelle Biblioteche di Fortí e di Lugo (30 inediti)”, Physis. Rivista internazionale di storia della scienza, vii (1965) 48–69.

Auerbach [1]. Auerbach Felix , Ernst Abbe. Sein Leben, sein Wirken, seine Persönlichkeit (Leipzig, 1918).

Auerbach [2]. Auerbach Felix , Das Zeisswerk und die Carl Zeiss-Stiftung in Jena, 5th edn. (Jena, 1925).

Badcock. Badcock A. W. , “Physical optics at the Royal Society 1660–1800”, British journal for the history of science, i, no. 2 (December 1962) 99–116.

Baker [1]. Baker John R. , “The discovery of the uses of colouring agents in biological micro-techniques”, Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club, 4th series, i, no. 6 (Dec, 1943) 256–275. Revised as Monographs of the Quekett Microscopical Club No 1 (London, 1945).

Baker [2]. Baker John R. , “Experiments on the function of the eye in light microscopy”, Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, lxxxv, pt 3 (June 1966) 231–254.

Bancher & Hölzl [1]. Bancher E. Hölzl J. , “Simon Plössl, ‘Nestor der deutschen Mikroskopverfertiger’”, Universum—Natur und Technik, xv, no. 23 (1960) 725–729.

Bancher & Hölzl [2]. Bancher E. Hölzl J. , “Die Anfänge der deutschen Mikroskoperzeugung”, Universum—Natur und Technik, xvi, no. 9 (1961) 268–274.

Barron. Barron A. L. E. , “Concerning John Thomas Quekett and some of his contemporaries”, Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club, xxix, no. 1 (Feb. 1962) 3–8.

Baxandall [1]. Baxandall David , “Early telescopes in the Science Museum, from an historical standpoint”, Transactions of the Optical Society, xxiv, no. 5 (1922–23) 304–320.

Baxandall [2]. Baxandall David , “Replicas of two Galileo telescopes”, Transactions of the Optical Society, xxv, no. 3 (1923–24) 141–144.

Baxandall & Court [1]. Baxandall David Court Thomas H. , “Early optical and other scientific instruments as documents of historical value”. Proceedings of the Optical Convention 1926, pt II (London [1926]) 537–540.

Baxandall & Court [2]. Baxandall David Court Thomas H. , “A telescope made by Christopher Cock in 1673”, Proceeding of the Optical Convention 1926, pt II, (London [1926]) 529–536.

Beck Beck H. H. C. , “Early magnifying glasses”, The Antiquaries journal, viii (1928) 327–330.

Beck, Beck W. William , Family fragments respecting the ancestry, acquaintance and marriage of Richard Low Beck and Rachel Lucas (Gloucester, 1897).

Bedini [1]. Bedini Silvio A. , “The optical workshop equipment of Giuseppe Campani”, Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences, xvi, no. 1 (1961) 18–38.

Bedini [2]. Bedini Silvio A. , “On making telescope tubes in the 17th century (an anonymous Italian manuscript)”, Physis. Revista di storia della scienza, iv (1962) 110–116.

Bedini [3]. Bedini Silvio A. , “Seventeenth century Italian compound microscopes”, idem, v (1964) 383–422.

Bedini [4]. Bedini Silvio A. , “Giuseppe Campani, pioneer optical inventor”, Ithaca—26 VIII—2 IX 1962 (Proceedings of the tenth international congress of history of science) i (Paris, 1964), 401–404.

Bedini [5]. Bedini Silvio A. , “The makers of Galileo's scientific instruments”, Atti del Simposio su “Galileo nella storia e nella filosofia della scienza” (Florence–Pisa, 14–16 Sept. 1964) (Florence) 89–115.

Bedini [6]. Bedini Silvio A. , “Lens making for scientific instrumentation in the seventeenth century”, Applied optics, v, no. 5 (May 1966) 687–694.

Bedini [7]. Bedini Silvio A. , “An early optical lens-grinding lathe”, Technology and culture, viii, no. 1 (Winter 1967) 74–77.

Bedini [8]. Bedini Silvio A. , “The aerial telescope”, idem, viii, no. 3 (July 1967) 395–401.

Belloni [1]. Belloni Luigi , “Micrografia illusoria e ‘animalcula’”, Physis. Rivista di storia della scienza, iv (1962) 65–73.

Belloni [2]. Belloni Luigi , “I trattati di M. Malpighi sulla struttura della lingua e della cute (‘De lingua’—‘De externo tactus organo’)”, idem, vii (1965) 431–475.

Belloni [3]. Belloni Luigi , “La neuroanatomia di Marcello Malpighi”, idem, viii (1966) 253–266.

Bernard. Bernard Jean-Georges , Histoire des microscopes ce que leur doit la médecine (Paris, 1886).

Best [1]. Best A. E. , “Lister's microscopic research on chromatophores”, Proceedings of the Royal Microscopical Society, ii, pt. 4 (Sept. 1967) 407–427.

Best [2]. Best A. E. , “The discovery of the mechanism of colour-changes in the chameleon” Annals of science, xxiv, no. 2 (June 1968) 147–167.

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Boegehold [1]. Boegehold H. , “Some remarks on old English objectives”. Transactions of the Optical Society, xxx (1928–29) 41–43.

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Bradbury [1]. Bradbury S. , “The quality of the image produced by the compound microscope: 1700–1840”, Proceedings of the Royal Microscopical Society, ii, pt. 1 (Jan. 1967) 151–173. Also published in Historical aspects of microscopy, ed. Bradbury S. Turner G. L'E. (Cambridge, 1967) 151–173.

Bradbury [2]. Bradbury S. , The evolution of the microscope (Oxford, 1967).

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Bradbury & Turner [2]. Bradbury S. Turner G. L'E. Historical aspects of microscopy. Papers read at a one-day conference held by the Royal Microscopical Society at Oxford, 18 March, 1966 (Cambridge, 1967).

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Buffa. Buffa Paolo , “Note alla memoria ‘Sulla fibra muscolare’ di Giovan Battista Amici”, in From molecule to cell: Symposium on electron microscopy, ed. Buffa Paolo (Rome 1964).

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Catalogue [1]. The Billings Microscope Collection of the Medical Museum Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (Washington, D.C.: The American Registry of Pathology, 1967).

Catalogue [2]. Sutcliffe John. H. , compiler and editor, assisted by Margaret Mitchell & Edith Chittell, British Optical Association Library and Museum catalogue (London, 1932); Anon., British Optical Association Library catalogue, vol. ii (London, 1935); Mitchell Margaret , complier & editor, British Optical Association Library catalogue, vol. iii (London, 1957).

Catalogue [3]. Catalogue of a loan exhibition of historic scientific apparatus in Cambridge, 8–23 June 1936 (Cambridge, [1936]).

Catalogue [4]. A catalogue of the collection of antique microscopes, formed by the late Sir Frank Crisp, Bart…. sold at Steven's Auction Rooms Ltd., February 17th 1925 [London, 1925].

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Catalogue [10]. Catalogue of the books in the library of the Quekett Microscopical Club, new and revised edition (London, 1915). A revised catalogue is being published in parts as supplements to the Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club; the first part appeared with xxix no. 10 (May 1964).

Catalogue [11]. Catalogue of the printed books and pamphlets in the library of the Royal Microscopical Society (London, 1929). [Although much of the library has been dispersed, making this no longer a catalogue useful for locating a work, it does provide a useful bibliography, particularly for research into the development of microscopy. See also for journals, their changes of names, etc.]

Catalogue [12]. Lister centenary exhibition at the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum. Handbook, 1927 (London, 1927).

Catalogue [13]. A catalogue of printed books in the Wellcome Historical Medical Library, i, “Books printed before 1641” (London, 1962), ii “Books printed between 1641 and 1850; A–E” (London, 1966).

Catalogue [14]. [ Hall A. R. ] A guide to the historic scientific instruments in the Whipple Museum of the History of Science (Cambridge, 1949).

Catalogue [15]. The Kodak Museum. A permanent exhibition illustrating the history of photography and some of its applications in science art and industry (Harrow, 1947).

Ceram. Ceram C. W. , Archaeology of the cinema (London, 1965).

Chaldecott [1]. Chaldecott J. A. , Handbook of the King George III collection of scientific instruments. Catalogue of exhibits [in the Science Museum, London] with descriptive notes (London, 1951).

Chaldecott [2]. Chaldecott J. A. , “The zograscope or optical diagonal machine”, Annals of science, ix, no. 4 (Dec. 1953) 315–322.

Champness. Champness William , The Worshipful Company of Spectacle Makers. A brief historical note (London, n.d.)

Chance & Hampton. Chance W. H. S. Hampton W. M. , “Some recent developments in the art of production of glass for optical purposes”, Proceedings of the Optical Convention 1926, pt. I (London [1926]) 24–40.

Chenakal [1]. Chenakal V. L. , “The astronomical observatory of St Petersburg Academy of Sciences at the end of the eighteenth century”, Istoriko-astronomicheskie issledovaniya, ii (1956) 141–152.

Chenakal [2]. Chenakal V. L. , “Small observatories of St Petersburg Academy of Sciences in the eighteenth century”, idem, iii (1957) 261–428.

Chenakal [3]. Chenakal V. L. , “W. Herschel's mirror telescope in Russia”, idem, iv (1958) 253–339.

Chenakal [4]. Chenakal V. L. , “James Short and Russian astronomy”, idem, v (1959) 11–82.

Chenakal [5]. Chenakal V. L. , “The astronomical instruments of J. Bird in Russia in the eighteenth century”, idem, vi (1960) 54–120.

Chenakal [6]. Chenakal V. L. , “New data on the system of numeration of telescopes by Short”, idem, ix (1966) 287–290. [The above six papers are in Russian.]

Chenakal [7]. Chenakal V. L. , “The astronomical instruments of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in the museums of the U.S.S.R.”, Vistas in astronomy, ix (1968) 53–77.

Cheshire. Cheshire F. J. , “Polariscopes: A few typical forms of early instruments in the South Kensington Museum”, Transactions of the Optical Society, xxiii, no. 4 (1921–22) 246–255.

Clarke & Bearn. Clarke Edwin Bearn J. G. , “The brain ‘glands’ of Malpighi elucidated”, Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences, xxiii, no. 4 (Oct. 1968) 309–330.

Clay [1]. Clay R. S. , “A brief account of some of the historical instruments exhibited at the Optical Convention, 1926”, Proceedings of the Optical Convention, 1926, pt. II (London [1926]) 493–501.

Clay [2]. Clay R. S. , “Presidential Address: The stereoscope”, Transactions of the Optical Society, xxix, no. 4 (1927–28) 149–166.

Clay [3]. Clay R. S. , “Presidential Address: A review of the mechanical improvements of microscopes in the last forty years”, Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, lviii (1938) 1–29.

Clay & Court [1]. Clay Reginald S. Court Thomas H. , “Two microscopes made by G. Adams for King George III”, Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, xlvi (1926) 268–273.

Clay & Court [2]. Clay Reginald S. Court Thomas H. , The history of the microscope compiled from original instruments and documents, up to the introduction of the achromatic microscope (London, 1932).

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Court & von Rohr [2]. Court Thomas H. von Rohr Moritz , “A history of the development of the telescope from about 1675 to 1830 based on documents in the Court Collection (third paper on the Court Collection)”, Transactions of the Optical Society, xxx (1928–29) 207–260.

Court & von Rohr [3]. Court Thomas H. von Rohr Moritz , “Contributions to the history of the Worshipful Company of Spectaclemakers (second paper on the Court Collection)”, Transactions of the Optical Society, xxxi (1929–30) 53–90.

Court & von Rohr [4]. Court Thomas H. von Rohr Moritz , “New knowledge of old telescopes (A supplement to the third paper on the Court Collection)”, Transactions of the Optical Society, xxxii (1930–31) 113–122.

Cowles [1]. Cowles Thomas , “Dr Henry Power, disciple of Sir Thomas Browne”, Isis, xx (1933) 344–366.

Cowles [2]. Cowles Thomas , “Dr Henry Power's poem on the microscope”, idem, xxi (1934) 71–80.

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Crombie [2]. Crombie A. C. , “The mechanistic hypothesis and the scientific study of vision: Some optical ideas as a background to the invention of the microscope”. Proceedings of the Royal Microscopical Society, ii, pt. 1 (Jan. 1967) 3–112. Also published in Historical aspects of microscopy, ed. Bradbury S. Turner G. L'E. (Cambridge, 1967) 3–112.

Crommelin [1]. Crommelin C. A. , Beschrijvende catalogus der historische verzameling van natuurkundige instrumenten in het Natuurkundig Laboratorium der Rijks-Universiteit te Leiden (Leiden, 1926).

Crommelin [2]. Crommelin C. A. , Het lenzen slijpen in de 17^e eeuw (Amsterdam, 1929).

Crommelin [3]. Crommelin C. A. , “La loupe, son origine et son développement”, Journal suisse d'horlogerie (July 1949) 85–98.

Crommelin [4]. Crommelin C. A. , Descriptive catalogue of the Huygens collection in the Rijksmuseum voor die Geschiedenis der Natuurwetenschappen at Leiden (Leiden, 1949).

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Disney. Disney Alfred N. , ed., with collaboration of Cyril F. Hill & Wilfred E. Watson, Origin and development of the microscope, as illustrated by catalogues of the instruments and accessories, in the collections of the Royal Microscopical Society, together with bibliographies of original authorities …. Preceded by an historical survey on the early progress of optical science by the editor (London, 1928).

Ditisheim. Ditisheim Paul , “Pierre-Louis Guinand et les verres d'optique”, Bulletin de la Société astronomique de France (April 1925), 23 pp.

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Drake. Drake Stillman , “Galileo gleanings—XIII. An unpublished fragment relating to the telescope and the Medicean stars”, Physis. Rivista di storia della scienza, iv (1962) 342–344.

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