SchirrmacherArne, (ed.), Communicating science in 20th century Europe: A survey on research and comparative perspectives, MPIWG. Preprint 385 (Berlin, 2009).
2.
AndersenCasperHjermitslevHans H., “Directing public interest: Danish newspaper science 1900–1903”, Centaurus, li (2009), 143–67; Gonzalez-SilvaMatianaHerranNestor, “Ideology, elitism and social commitment: Alternative images of science in two fin de siècle Barcelona newspapers”, Centaurus, li (2009), 2009–115; PapanelopoulouFaidraKjærgaardPeter C., “Making the paper: Science and technology in Spanish, Greek and Danish newspapers around 1900”, Centaurus, li (2009), 2009–96; Concei&ção Tavares, Ana Carneiro, Maria Paula Diogo and Ana Simões, “A imagem pública das ciências e da tecnologia na imprensa portuguesa (1900–1901)” in CordeiroCarlosSilvaSusana Serpa (eds), A história da imprensa e a imprensa na História: O contributo dos A&çores (Ponta Delgada, 2009), 519–35; SimõesAnaCarneiroAnaDiogoMaria Paula, “Riding the wave to reach the masses: Natural events in early twentieth-century Portuguese daily”, Science and education, xxi (2012), 2012–13.
3.
GavrogluKostasPatiniotisManolisPapanelopoulouFaidraSimõesAnaCarneiroAnaDiogoMaria PaulaBertomeu-SánchezJose RamonBelmarAntonio GarciaNieto-GalanAgusti, “Science and technology in the European periphery: Some historiographical reflections”, History of science, xlvi (2008), 153–75; SimonJosepHerranNestor 2008; PapanelopoulouFaidraNieto-GalanAgustiPerdigueroEnrique (eds), Popularizing science and technology in the European periphery, 1800–2000 (Surrey, 2009).
4.
ReisFernando Egídio, “Scientific dissemination in Portuguese encyclopaedic periodicals, 1779–1820”, History of science, xiv (2007), 83–118.
5.
Bensaude-VincentB.RasmussenA., (eds), La science populaire dans la presse et l'édition: XIX et XX siècles (Paris, 1997); Ruiz-CastellPedroGuillem-LlobatXimoSimonJosepHerranNestorLanuza-NavarroTayra (eds), Beyond borders: Fresh perspectives in history of science (Newcastle, 2008); CooterR.PumphreyS., “Separate spheres and public spaces: Reflections on the history of science popularization and science in popular culture”, History of science, xxxii (1994), 1994–67; HilgartnerS., “The dominant view of popularization: Conceptual problems, political issues”, Social studies of science, xx (1990), 1990–39; ShinnT.WhitleyR. (eds), Expository science: Forms and functions of popularization (Dordrecht, 1995); TophamJ. R., (ed.), “Focus: Historicizing ‘popular science’”, Isis, c (2009), 2009–18.
6.
GregoryJaneMillerSteve, Science in public: Communication, culture and credibility (Cambridge, 1998), 132–65.
7.
Research for this paper has been carried out in the framework of the research project An open window to representations of science and technology in the Portuguese press (1900–1926), funded by the Portuguese Research Council (FCT/MCTES). It aims at analyzing public images of science and technology transmitted by the press in Portugal, during the first decades of the twentieth century. It relies on a comparative methodology based on the contrast of news issued in generalist newspapers of different political orientations and geographical provenance, and covers a period from the end of the Monarchy (1900–10) to the end of the First Republic (1910–26).
8.
All news on Halley's visit published in the three newspapers, in 1910, was identified, transcribed, categorized and analyzed according to content. The criteria used encompassed locality (national or international news), type of news (opinion articles, reports on lectures, news reports, letters, advertisements, goods, books, plays). The analysis of news involved their classification according to content (scientific, religious, political, and historical).
9.
GregoryMller, Science in public (ref. 6).
10.
In the 1850s, ‘60s and ’70s, Portugal belonged to a select group of countries that used gold as their monetary standard, thus enjoying considerable credibility on the international money market. By 1880, Portugal belonged (together with Spain and Italy) to the so-called “Latin group” of European nations, reputed for their troublesome financial balance and organization.
11.
The 1870s Generation (Gera&ção de 70) was a group of Portuguese intellectuals who held meetings at a casino in Lisbon, in which they set out to reflect and discuss political and social change in the world and in Portugal, as stated in their manifesto. They shared an internationalist outlook in social, political and cultural matters, refused the idea of their country continuing to remain alien to the new ideas circulating in Europe, and engaged in investigating the conditions for the political, economic, social and moral transformation of Portuguese society.
de CarvalhoRómulo, História do Ensino desde a Funda&ção da Nacionalidade até ao fim do regime de Salazar-Caetano (Lisboa, 1985).
14.
FernandesRogério, Uma experiência de forma&ção para adultos na Primeira República: A Universidade Livre para a Educa&ção Popular 1911–1917 (Lisboa, 1933). The Free University was founded in Lisbon in 1912 by Alexandre Ferrreira. The Popular University started in 1911 in Porto and in 1919 in Lisbon. Among its teachers was the philosopher and mathematician Leonardo Coimbra, who belonged to the Portuguese Republican Party, after 1914, and was minister of Public Instruction twice, in 1919 and 1923.
15.
Boletim mensal da Universidade Livre (Lisboa, 1912).
16.
PereiraDavid, “A sociedade” in RosasFernandoRolloMaria Fernanda (eds), História da Primeira República Portuguesa (Lisboa, 2009), 79–92, p. 80.
ProençaMaria Cândida, “A educa&ção” in RosasFernandoRolloMaria Fernanda (eds), História da Primeira República Portuguesa (Lisboa, 2009), 169–89, p. 176.
19.
Name of the Portuguese currency during the monarchy.
20.
Comércio do Porto, 8 June 1910, 4.
21.
da CostaA. Ramos, O cometa de Halley e a sua influência provável na Terra (Lisboa, 1910). Its price is announced in Diário de Notícias, 27 March 1910, 3.
22.
Pereira, “A sociedade” (ref. 16), 82, 86.
23.
To learn more about these three newspapers and the Portuguese press see also Simões, CarneiroDiogo, “Riding the wave to reach the masses” (ref. 2).
24.
TengarrinhaJosé, História da imprensa periódica Portuguesa (Lisboa, 1989).
25.
Diário de Notícias began with a Marinoni rotary printing press, which printed 15,000 copies per hour and in 1904 the manual setting-up type was replaced by Lynotype, whose work was equivalent to five typesetters. RamosRui, “História de Portugal: A segunda funda&ção”, in MattosoJosé (ed.), História de Portugal (Lisboa, 2001). According to Eduardo Coelho, the journal should “be interesting to all classes, accessible to all purses and understandable to all minds” in Tengarrinha, História da imprensa (ref. 24), 215. Comércio do Porto began with a vapour machine but in 1863 bought a Marinoni rotary printing press, in Tengarrinha, História da imprensa (ref. 24), 229.
26.
Grande enciclopédia Portuguesa e Brasileira (Lisboa/Rio de Janeiro, n.d.). Entries, “Miranda, Henrique Carlos de”; “Resende, Manuel Augusto Tavares”; “Carqueja, Bento de Sousa”; “Carqueja, Francisco de Sousa”; ”Carqueja, Manuel de Sousa”.
27.
Comércio do Porto began with a vapour machine but in 1863 bought a Marinoni rotary printing press, in Tengarrinha, História da imprensa (ref. 24), 229.
28.
55 × 37 cm, 47 × 32 cm, 63 × 46 cm, respectively in Mário Matos e Lemos, Jornais diários Portugueses do Século XX: Um dicionário (Coimbra, 2006), 170, 266, 293.
29.
These sections rotated with other chronicles (or feature articles) such as Maritime chronicle (Crönica marítima), External politics (Política externa), Financial chronicle (Crónica financeira), Military chronicle (Crónica militar). Besides this first major column at the beginning of the newspaper, other more or less permanent printed sections were: Foreigner news (Noticiário estrangeiro), Letter from England (Carta de Inglanterra), Letter from Paris (Carta de Paris), Overseas colonies (Ultramar), Religious celebrations (Festas religiosas), News from outside Lisboa (Fora de Lisboa) and several sections dedicated to news from other Portuguese towns: News from Elvas (Notícias de Elvas); News from Covilhã (Notícias da Covilhã); News from Porto (Notícias do Porto), etc). These sections could appear in the same issue more than once reflecting the editorial and typographical plasticity of the newspaper. Other thematic sections were created according to necessity. For these reasons, other science, technology and medicine related news appears scattered throughout the newspaper.
30.
Sections included News (Noticiário), News from other towns (Interior), News from abroad (Noticiário estrangeiro), Religious news (Noticiário religioso), Trade (Commercio), Shipping (Navega&ção) and Telegraph and telephone (Telegrapho e telephono), a special section dedicated to news arriving at the office using the latest technical communication innovations, and therefore conveying a sense the freshness and modernity of the news to the paper.
31.
Tengarrinha, História da imprensa (ref. 24), 294. In fact, and also reflecting the newspaper geography, news about wine production, agriculture and agriculture schools appear frequently. Its commercial scope is also reflected in the amount of news concerning the construction of a new sea port and in the commercial shipping schedules advertised.
32.
Matos e Lemos, Jornais diários (ref. 28), 171.
33.
They were titled: Scientific review; Cases and notes; Impressions and notes; Military review; Small news throughout the world; Science latest news; Lectures held at the Commercial Athenaeum; Agricultural section; Through the fields and gardens.
Max Wolf from Heidelberg Observatory, Edward Emerson Barnard from Yerkes Observatory, George Van Biesbrok from the Royal Observatory of Belgium, François Gonnessiat from Argel Observatory, McHel Giacobini from Paris Observatory, Ferdinand Quénisset and Flammarion from Juvisy Observatory, Josep Comas y Solá from Fabra Observatory in Barcelona.
36.
Comércio do Porto, 8 February 1910, 1; Comércio do Porto, 24 July 1910, 6.
37.
Diário de Notícias, 15 May 1910, 2.
38.
Diário de Notícias, 27 April 1910, 2.
39.
SchechnerSara J., Comets, popular culture and the birth of modern cosmology (New Jersey, 1997), 218.
40.
FlammarionCamille, La fin du monde (Paris, 1854), 131–2.
FlammarionCamille, O fim do mundo (Lisboa, n.d.); Comércio do Porto, 17 April 1910, 4; FlammarionCamille, Astronomia popular (Lisboa, 1893); Diário de Notícias, 16 May 1910, 7.
43.
FlammarionCamille, Como acabará o mundo? (Lisboa, 1908).
44.
Diário de Notícias, 27 January 1910, 1; Diário dos A&çores, 9 April 1910, 1. Diário dos A&çores, 10 May 1910, 2.
45.
Diário dos A&çores, 17 January 1910, 2; Comércio do Porto, 23 January 1910, 1; Diário de Notícias, 25 January 1910, 1.
46.
Diário de Notícias, 23 May 1910, 1.
47.
See for instance Chronica Scientifica in Diário de Notícias, 25 January 1910, 1; Comércio do Porto, 23 January 1910, 1.
48.
Diário de Notícias, 23 January 1910, 5; Comércio do Porto, 25 January 1910, 1. For a history of the Astronomical Observatory see RaposoPedro, Polity, precision and the stellar heavens: The Royal Astronomical Observatory of Lisbon (1857–1910), unpublished PhD thesis, University of Oxford, 2010.
49.
Comércio do Porto, 23, January 1910, 1.
50.
Diário de Notícias, 31 May 1910, 1.
51.
Diário de Notícias, 13 May 1910, 1.
52.
Diário de Notícias, 19 May 1910, 1.
53.
Diário de Notícias, 22 February 1910, 7.
54.
“Alfacinha” is a nickname for those who live in the city of Lisbon, hence “astrónomo alfacinha” means astronomer from Lisbon.
55.
FlammarionCamille, Annuaire astronomique et météreologiquepour 1909 (Paris, 1909), 233.
56.
We are referring to the reports of lectures given by Afonso Chaves (Diário dos A&çores, 2 May, 1910), Melo e Simas (Diário de Notícias, 4 May 1910, 1), Costa Lobo (Diário de Notícias, 10 May 1910, 2), Inocêncio Camacho (Diário de Notícias, 15 May 1910, 2), Ladislau Batalha (Diário de Notícias, 17 May 1910, 3).
57.
Diário de Notícias, 10 May 1910, 2.
58.
Diário de Notícias, 7 February 1910, 4; Ramos da Costa, O cometa de Halley (ref. 21).
59.
Diário de Notícias, 28 June 1910, 7.
60.
Diário dos A&çores, 29 April 1910, 2; Diário dos A&çores, 30 April, 1910,1; Diário dos A&çores, 2 May, 1910, 1; Diário dos A&çores, 3 May 1910, 1; Diário dos A&çores, 13 May 1910, 2; Concei&ção Tavares, Albert I do Mónaco, Afonso Chaves e a meteorologia nos A&çores (Ponta Delgada, 2009).
61.
SimõesCarneiroDiogo, “Riding the wave to reach the masses” (ref. 2).
62.
Diário dos A&çores, 13 May 1910, 2.
63.
Diário do Governo, 4 May 1910.
64.
Diário de Notícas, 3 May 1910, 1; Comércio do Porto, 4 May 1910, 2; Diário dos A&çores 11 May, 1910, 2.
65.
MotaElsaCrawfordPauloSimõesAna, “Einstein in Portugal: Eddington's expedition to Principe and the reactions of Portuguese astronomers (1917–25)”, The British journal for history of science, xlii (2009), 245–73.
66.
Diário de Notícias, 4 May 1910, 1. Five years later Melo e Simas published a text considering that Halley's visit provided “a lesson in cometary astronomy, whose conclusions were always timely, always grandiose and always admirable”: Melo e Simas, “O cometa de Halley: Sua influência sobre a Terra”, Trabalhos da Academia de Sciências de Portugal (1915).
