Secondary Matters: Textbooks and the Making of Physics in Nineteenth-Century France and England

Demogeot J. Montucci H. , De l'enseignement secondaire en Angleterre et en Écosse: Rapport adressé a son Exc. le Ministre de l'Instruction Publique (Paris, 1868), 1.

Anon., “Ganot's physics”, The Leeds mercury 20 October 1875.

See for instance, Anon., “Review of Report on the system of education for the middle and upper classes in France, Italy, Germany and Switzerland by M. Arnold and Rapport sur l'enseignement secondaire en Angleterre et en Écosse by Demogeot and Montucci”, The quarterly review, cxxv (1868), 473–90; Wilson J. M. , Elementary geometry. Books I. II. III. (London and Cambridge, 1869), p. ix.

This state of affairs is also connected to the comparatively low status of ‘education’ in current British history of science, in contrast to the wealth of studies on science popularization (which often avoid confronting the role of formal education in nineteenth-century British science and its fruitful interactions with popularization). See Belhoste B. , “Les caractères généraux de l'enseignement secondaire scientifque de la fin de l'Ancien Régime à la Première Guerre Mondiale”, Histoire de l'éducation, lvi (1989., 3–45; Belhoste B. Balpe C. Laporte T. , Les sciences dans l'enseignement secondaire français: Textes offciels (Paris, 1995); Brock W. H. , “Science education”, in Olby R. Cantor G. N. Christie J. R. R. Hodge M. J. S. (eds)., Companion to the history of modern science (London, 1990), 946–59; Fyfe A. Lightman B. , Science in the marketplace: Nineteenth-century sites and experiences (Chicago, 2007); Secord J. , “Science”, in Howsam L. Stray C. Jenkins A. Secord J. A. Vaninskaya A. (eds), “What the Victorians learned: Perspectives on nineteenth-century schoolbooks”, Journal of Victorian culture, xxii (2007), 2007–6.

On the pros and cons of Demogeot and Montucci's report, see Anderson R. D. , “French views of the English public schools: Some nineteenth-century episodes”, History of education, ii (1973), 159–71.

Frederic G. W. (Earl of Clarendon) et al., Report of Her Majesty's commissioners appointed to inquire into the revenues and management of certain colleges and schools, and the studies pursued and instruction given therein; with an appendix and evidence. Vol. I. Report (London, 1864).

Choppin A. , Les manuels scolaires: Histoire et actualité (Paris, 1992), 6–18; Stray C. , “Paradigms regained: Towards a historical sociology of the textbook”, Journal of curriculum studies, xxvi (1994), 1994–29, pp. 1–4; Johnsen E. B. , Textbooks in the kaleidoscope: A critical survey of literature and research on educational texts (Tønsberg, 2001), ch. 1; Bensaude-Vincent B. Belmar A. García Sánchez J. R. Bertomeu , L'émergence d'une science des manuels: Les livres de chimie en France (1789–1852) (Paris, 2003), 1–11.

Grafton A. T. , “Textbooks and the disciplines”, in Campi E. De Angelis S. Goeing A. S. Grafton A. T. (eds), Scholarly knowledge: Textbooks in early modern Europe (Geneva, 2008), 11–36; Stray , “Paradigms regained” (ref. 7); Issitt J. , “Reflections on the study of textbooks”, History of education, xxxiii (2004), 2004–96; Bensaude-Vincent B. , “Textbooks on the map of science studies”, Science & education, xv (2006), 2006–70.

This term was commonly used to refer to textbooks for primary education, while ‘livres classiques’ referred to secondary school textbooks. In practice, these terms were often combined and the adjective “élémentaire' was part of many titles of secondary school textbooks. Buisson F. , “Livres scolaires, 1° Les livres élémentaires de la Première République, IV”, in Nouveau dictionnaire de pédagogie et d'instruction primaire (Paris, 1911).

Bensaude-Vincent García Belmar Bertomeu , L'émérgence (ref. 7), 56–59.

There is a huge amount of literature on the organization of nineteenth-century French education which I have used to produce the following narrative. I recommend especially Anderson R. D. , Education in France, 1848–1870 (Oxford, 1975); Belhoste Balpe Laporte , Les sciences dans l'enseignement (ref. 4); Fox R. Weisz G. (eds)., The organization of science and technology in France, 1808–1914 (Cambridge, 1980); Hulin N. , L'enseignement secondaire scientifique en France d'un siècle à l'autre, 1802–1980 (Lyon, 2007); Zwerling C. S. , The emergence of the Ecole Normale Supérieure as a center of scientific education in nineteenth-century France (New York and London, 1990); Bensaude-Vincent García Belmar Sánchez Bertomeu , L'émergence (ref. 7). For a more complete bibliography see Simon J. , Communicating physics: The production, circulation and appropriation of Ganot's textbooks in France and England, 1851–1887 (London, 2011).

Mainardi P. , Art and politics of the Second Empire: The universal expositions of 1855 and 1867 (New Haven, 1987).

This law was a tool designed by conservative governments to encourage the Catholic Church to regain control over education. Eventually, it also favoured private entrepreneurs like Adolphe Ganot. Prost A. , Histoire de l'enseignement en France, 1800–1967 (Paris, 1968), 172–7.

Bensaude-Vincent García Belmar Bertomeu , L'émérgence (ref. 7), 47–82.

See for instance Kounelis C. , “Atomism in France: Chemical textbooks and dictionaries, 1810–1835”, in Lundgren A. Bensaude-Vincent B. (eds)., Communicating chemistry: Textbooks and their audiences, 1789–1939 (Canton, Mass., 2000), 207–32.

Belhoste Balpe Laporte (eds)., Les sciences dans l'enseignement (ref. 4), 388–407.

Fournier-Balpe C. , “Histoire de l'enseignement de la physique dans l'enseignement secondaire en France au XIXe siècle” (PhD thesis dissertation, Université Paris XI, 1994), 167–9; Bensaude-Vincent García Belmar Bertomeu , L'émérgence (ref. 7), 88–91, 96–99.

Among these were the École polytechnique (first step in engineering education), the École d'artillerie et du génie in Metz (artillery officers and military engineers), the École des ponts et chaussées (civil engineers), the École vétérinaire (veterinary surgeons), and the École normale supérieure (school teachers).

Haüy A. , Traité élémentaire de physique (Paris, 1806); Hulin N. , “René-Just Haüy: Des leçons de l'an III au Traité élémentaire de physique”, Revue d'histoire des sciences, l (1997), 243–63.

Biot J.-B. , Traité de physique expérimentale et mathématique (Paris, 1816); Biot J.-B. , Précis élémentaire de physique expérimentale (Paris, 1817).

At the beginning of the century there were faculties of sciences, medicine or pharmacy only in Paris, Besançon, Caen, Dijon, Lyon, Montpellier (medicine and pharmacy), Toulouse, Strasbourg (medicine and pharmacy) and Grenoble. In the following decades new faculties of sciences were created in Aix, Bordeaux, Clermont, Douai, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes and Strasbourg, constituting a national network of sixteen faculties of sciences. Balpe Belhoste Laporte (eds), Les sciences dans l'enseignement (ref. 4), 66–67, 77–78; Fox Weisz , The organization of science (ref. 11), 1–7.

Belhoste Balpe Laporte (eds)., Les sciences dans l'enseignement (ref. 4), 77–78, 113–15, 121, 127, 129.

Balpe C. , “L'enseignement des sciences physiques: Naissance d'un corps professoral (fin XVIIIe — Fin XIXe siècle)”, Histoire de l'éducation, lxxiii (1997), 49–85, p. 68.

In 1842 the salary of a provincial teacher ranged between 1,200 to 2,000 francs. In 1865 the salary in a Parisian lycée was 2,500 francs and the lowest salary in the province was 1,200 francs. Balpe “L'enseignement des sciences physiques” (ref. 23), 70. See also Prost , Histoire de l'enseignement (ref. 13).

Zwerling , The emergence of the Ecole Normale (ref. 11), 91, 170, 194, 198.

In fact, early in the century, several provincial faculties had to close due to the lack of students. Subsequently, they were reopened. Fox Weisz , The organization of science (ref. 11), n. 3, p. 2.

The baccalauréat ès-lettres was not compulsory to enter the École polytechnique but highly recommended. Weisz G. , The emergence of modern universities in France, 1863–1914 (Princeton, 1983), 27–28.

Day school fees were cheap, but boarding school fees were considerable (although still lower than the English ones) costing between a half and a third of the annual salary of a secondary school teacher, and around the annual salary of a primary school teacher. Prost , Histoire de l'enseignement (ref. 13).

In 1820, 50,000 students received secondary education; in 1887, the number had increased to 150,000, while the number of primary school students was five and a half million. Thus, only 3% of the primary school students subsequently attended secondary education. Green A. , Education and state formation: The rise of education systems in England, France and the USA (Basingstoke and London, 1990), 17–18; Fournier-Balpe , Histoire de l'enseignement de la physique (ref. 17), n. 3, p. 86.

Ibid., 18.

In 1812, only 24 bachelier ès-sciences against 1632 bachelier ès-lettres diplomas were awarded. Belhoste Balpe Laporte (eds), Les sciences dans l'enseignement (ref. 4), n. 1, p. 82.

Balpe “L'enseignement des sciences physiques” (ref. 23).

The measure was suspended in 1831 (due in part to students protests), but was restored in 1837. Medicine and engineering were at the time the major job profles available for science students. Caron J.-C. , Générations romantiques, les étudiants de Paris et le Quartier latin, 1814–1851 (Paris, 1991), 29; Belhoste Balpe Laporte (eds)., Les sciences dans l'enseignement (ref. 4), 139.

Balpe , “L'enseignement des sciences physiques” (ref. 23), n.1, p. 70.

In 1842, the number of candidates attending the baccalauréat ès-sciences was still one sixth of that of the baccalauréat ès-lettres. It had however multiplied by ten its relative rate of attendance, as in 1812 the former was sixty-eight times lower than the latter. In the 1850s and early 1860s, both examinations had approximately the same number of candidates, of around 4000 candidates each. Gerbod P. , La condition universitaire en France au XIXe siècle: Etude d'un groupe socio—professionnel. Professeurs et administrateurs de l'enseignement secondaire public de 1842 à 1880 (Paris, 1965), 357, 384.

Fournier-Balpe , Histoire de l'enseignement de la physique (ref. 17), 88.

See Anderson , Education in France (ref. 11), 61–72.

Zwerling , The emergence of the Ecole Normale (ref. 11), 219–28.

Dumas J. B. , “Rapport sur l'état actuel de l'enseignement scientifique dans les collèges, les écoles intermédiaires et les écoles primaires, adressé à M. le ministre de l'Instruction publique, grand-maître de l'Université de France, par la faculté des sciences de Paris (extraits)”, in Belhoste Balpe Laporte (eds), Les sciences dans l'enseignement (ref. 4), 207–23.

Gooday G. , “Lies, damned lies and declinism: Lyon Playfair, the Paris 1867 exhibition and the contested rhetorics of scientific education and industrial performance”, in Inkster I. Griffin C. Hill J. Rowbotham J. (eds)., The Golden Age: Essays in British social and economical history, 1850–1870 (Aldershot, 2000), 105–20.

Belhoste Balpe Laporte (eds)., Les sciences dans l'enseignement (ref. 4), 413–42; Charmasson T. Lelorrain A.-M. Ripa Y. (eds)., L'enseignement technique de la Révolution à nos jours: Textes officiels avec introduction, notes et annexes (Paris, 1987), 21–55.

Hulin , “René-Just Haüy” (ref. 19).

Karady V. , “Educational qualifications and university careers in science in 19th-century France”, in Fox Weisz (eds), The organization of science (ref. 11), 95–126, pp. 96, 105, 124.

Zwerling , The emergence of the Ecole Normale (ref. 11), 111, 245, 295–300.

Vallery-Radot R. , The life of Pasteur (Garden City and New York, 1928), 10.

Balpe , “L'enseignement des sciences physiques” (ref. 23), 62, 70; Chervel A. , “Lauréats des concours d'agrégation de 1821 à 1900”, INRP (http://www.inrp.fr/she/chervel—laureats1.htm).

Ibid., 77–80.

Hulin-Jung N. , “L'enseignement scientifque sous le Second Empire: La ‘bifurcation’; la formation des professeurs de l'enseignement secondaire” (PhD thesis dissertation, E.H.E.S.S, 1986), 301.

Despretz is an atypical case, and for this reason, I will not treat in detail here his contribution. His physics textbook had six editions between 1825 and 1840. His research broadly interacted with physics, chemistry and medicine and he worked at a Parisian lycée, the faculty of sciences, and the École polytechnique. See Hoefer F. , Nouvelle biographie générale (Paris, 1852–66); Vapereau G. , Dictionnaire universel des contemporains (Paris, 1893).

Edmondson J. M. , From mécanicien to ingénieur: Technical education and the machine building industry in nineteenth-century France (New York, 1987).

Péclet E. , Cours de physique (Marseille, 1823–25).

Péclet E. , Traité élémentaire de physique (Paris, 1830).

Balpe , “L'enseignement des sciences physiques” (ref. 23), 70.

On Hachette, see Mollier J. Y. , Louis Hachette (1800–1864): Le fondateur d'un empire (Paris, 1999); and L'argent et les lettres: Histoire du capitalisme d'edition, 1880–1920 (Paris, 1988).

Péclet E. , Traité de l'éclairage (Paris, 1827); and Traité de la chaleur et de ses applications aux arts et aux manufactures (Paris, 1828).

Péclet E. , École centrale des manufactures. Cours de physique appliquée. Professeur: M. Péclet. Lithographies distribuées aux élèves pour leur instruction: Année scolaire 1833–1834 [1836–1837] (Paris, n.d.).

For examples of these practices see Bensaude-Vincent B. , “From teaching to writing: Lecture notes and textbooks at the French École Polytechnique”, in Lundgren Bensaude-Vincent (eds), Communicating chemistry (ref. 15), 273–94; Garcia-Belmar A. , “The didactic uses of experiment: Louis Jacques Thenard's lectures at the Collège de France”, in Bertomeu J. R. Nieto-Galan A. (eds)., Science, medicine and crime: Mateu Orfla (1787–1853) and his times (Canton, 2006), 25–53.

Dezobry L. C. , Dictionnaire général de biographie et d'histoire (Paris, 1869).

Péclet's Traité de la chaleur had two new editions after the 1850s, probably reprints. His other textbooks did not have further editions. Fourquet É. , Les hommes célèbres et les personalités marquantes de Franche-Comté: Du IVe siècle à nos jours (Besançon, 1929).

Pouillet , Élémens de physique expérimentale et de météorologie (Paris, 1827).

Buisson F. , “Grosselin”, in Buisson , Nouveau dictionnaire (ref. 9).

Brès Jean-Pierr , “Review of Vocabulaire sténographique by Grosselin” A. , Revue Encyclopédique, xxiii (1824), 442–4; Gardey D. , “Mechanizing writing and photographing the word: Utopias, office work and histories of gender and technology”, History and technology, xvii (2001), 2001–52.

Anon., “Nouvelles politiques”, L'ami de la religion et du roi, journal ecclésiastique, politique et littéraire, 1467 (1828), 91–93, p. 92.

Khantine-Langlois F. , “Les multiples manuels: Une source pour retrouver la description et l'usage des appareils anciens”, in Gires F. (ed.)., Cabinet de physique du lycée Guez de Balzac d'Angoulême (n.p., 2006), 19–23, p. 19.

Pouillet C.-M.-S. , Notions générales de physique et de météorologie à l'usage de la jeunesse (Paris, 1850).

See Simon , Communicating physics (ref. 11), 58–76.

Drion C. Fernet É. , Traité de physique élémentaire (Paris, 1861).

Lorenz O. Jordell D. , Catalogue général de la librairie française: Continuation de l'ouvrage d'Otto Lorenz (Paris, 1908–9). Havelange I. Huguet F. Lebedeff B. , Les inspecteurs généraux de l'Instruction publique: Dictionnaire biographique 1802–1914 (Paris, 1986).

Deschanel A. Privat , Traité élémentaire de physique (Paris, 1868); Dantès A. , Dictionnaire biographique et bibliographique (Paris, 1875); Lorenz O. , Catalogue général de la librairie française depuis 1840 (Paris, 1877); Vapereau , Dictionnaire universel (ref. 49).

Boutan A. d'Almeida J. C. , Cours élémentaire de physique, suivi de problèmes (Paris, 1861).

On Almeida see Mitchell D. , “Gabriel Lippmann and late-nineteenth century French macrophysics” (D.Phil. thesis dissertation, University of Oxford, 2010), ch. 1.

Zwerling , The emergence of the Ecole Normale (ref. 11), 125, 160–1.

This status was preserved until the late nineteenth century. Nye M. J. , “The scientific periphery in France: The faculty of science at Toulouse (1880–1930)”, Minerva, xiii (1975), 374–403.

Daguin's treatise was published by Edouard Privat in Toulouse, in association with Dézobry & E. Magdeleine in Paris. From the 1840s Deguin's book was exclusively published by Bélin-Mandar in Paris. Pinaud's textbook was published by Privat et Bon in Toulouse in association with Hachette in Paris. Daguin P.-A. , Traité élémentaire de physique théorique et expérimentale avec les applications à la météorologie et aux arts industriels (Toulouse, 1860–61); Deguin , Cours élémentaire de physique (Toulouse, 1839); Pinaud A. , Programme d'un cours élémentaire de physique (Toulouse, 1839).

Mistler J. , La Librairie Hachette de 1826 à nos jours (Paris, 1964), 15–29.

Mollier , L'argent et les lettres (ref. 54), 172–97.

Martin O. Martin H. J. , “Le monde des éditeurs”, in Martin H. J. (ed.), Histoire de l'édition française, iii (Paris, 1985), 159–215, pp. 184–96.

Peirce B. O. , “Biographical memoir of Joseph Lovering, 1813–1892”, in (ed.), National Academy of Sciences: Biographical memoirs, part of volume VI (Washington, 1909), 329–44.

By authors such as Pouillet, Péclet, Lamé and Despretz.

[ Lovering J. ], “Elementary works on physical science”, The North American review, lxxii (1851), 358–95.

Topham J. , “Publishing ‘popular science’ in early nineteenth-century Britain”, in Fyfe Lightman (eds), Science in the marketplace (ref. 4), 135–68, p. 135.

Frederick , Report of Her Majesty's commissioners (ref. 5), 392.

Anon ., “Christmas books and annuals: Ganot's elementary treatise on physics”, The Leeds mercury, 7 December 1871, 6.

As the publication dates and prefaces of their books testify. See Atkinson E. , “Preface to the first edition”, in Ganot A. (ed.), Elementary treatise on physics experimental and applied (London, 1863); Deschanel A. Privat , Elementary treatise on natural philosophy (London, Glasgow and Edinburgh, 1870–72).

Oxford and Cambridge had science teaching but in general not counting for their degrees and thus being highly voluntarist.

Green , Education and state formation (ref. 29), 19.

Roach J. , A history of secondary education in England, 1800–1870 (London and New York, 1986), 55–59, 20, 25–26; Anderson R. D. , Universities and elites in Britain since 1800 (Cambridge, 1995), 44.

Anderson , Universities and elites (ref. 87), 6.

Unfortunately, it is difficult to say more, for, in general, historians of physics have ignored the relevance of medical education for physics, and historians of medicine have kept silent about physics teaching in the English medical schools. An exception is Mansell A. L. , “Examinations and medical education: The preliminary sciences in the examinations of London University and the English Conjoint Board, 1861–1911”, in McLeod R. (ed.), Days of judgement: Science examinations and the organization of knowledge in late Victorian England (Driffield, 1982), 87–107.

Anderson , Universities and elites (ref. 87), 5.

Ibid., 48–49.

Ibid., 7.

Ibid., 5; Dodds W. , A Complete guide to matriculation at the University of London (Manchester, London [ca. 1869]), 3.

Heward C. M. , “Education, examinations and the artisans: The Department of Science and Art in Birmingham, 1853–1902”, in McLeod (ed.), Days of judgement (ref. 89), 45–64, p. 54.

Dodds , A complete guide (ref. 93), 4–5.

Anderson , Universities and elites (ref. 87), 7–8; Vaughan M. Archer M. S. , Social conflict and educational change in England and France, 1789–1848 (Cambridge, 1971), 45–59.

Roach , A history of secondary education (ref. 87), 5.

Partial exceptions are Bryant M. E. , The London experience of secondary education (London, 1986); Roach , A history of secondary education (ref. 87), and Secondary education in England, 1870–1902 (London, 1991).

Queenwood College has received particular attention in connection with John Tyndall and Edward Frankland in this school. However, it is still an isolated case in a panoramic view which has not been built yet. Roach , A history of secondary education (ref. 87), 130–2; Brock W. H. , “Queenwood College revisited”, in Science for all: Studies in the history of Victorian science and education (Ashgate, 1996), 1–23; Thompson D. , “Queenwood College, Hampshire”, Annals of science, xi (1955), 246–54.

Laurent J. , “Science, society and politics in late nineteenth-century England: A further look at Mechanics' Institutes”, Social studies of science, xiv (1984), 585–619; Shapin S. Barnes B. , “Science, nature, control: Interpreting Mechanics' Institutes”, Social studies of science, vii (1977), 31–74.

Anderson , Universities and elites (ref. 87), 5–6; Roach , A history of secondary education (ref. 87), 112–14, 120–32, 175–9.

Acland T. D. , New Oxford examinations for the title of Associate in Arts and certificates for the year 1858 (London, Oxford and Cambridge, 1858), pp. xxiii–xxiv; Brock W. H. , “School science examinations: Sacrifice or stimulus?” in McLeod (ed.), Days of judgement (ref. 89), 169–88, pp. 170–3.

Morrell J. Thackray A. , Gentlemen of science: Early years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Oxford, 1981), 23–28, 386–96; Fox R. , “The context and practices of Oxford Physics, 1839–77”, in Fox R. Gooday G. (eds), Physics in Oxford, 1839–1939: Laboratories, learning and college life (Oxford, 2005), 24–79, pp. 31–32.

Newton D. P. , “A French influence on nineteenth- and twentieth-century physics teaching in English secondary schools”, History of education, xii (1983), 191–201, p. 193.

Butterworth H. , “The Science and Art Department examinations: Origins and achievements”, in McLeod (ed.), Days of judgement (ref. 89), 27–44; Heward , “Education, examinations and the artisans: The Department of Science and Art in Birmingham, 1853–1902”, in ibid. (ref. 89), 45–64; Gooday G. , “Precision measurement and the genesis of physics laboratories in Victorian Britain” (PhD thesis dissertation, University of Kent, 1989), 50–54; Science and Art Department, Directory (revised March 1861) with regulations for establishing and conducting science schools and classes (London, 1861), 42–47, and Directory (revised September 1863) with regulations for establishing and conducting science schools and classes (London, 1863), 49–51.

Roach , A history of secondary education (ref. 87), 95–97, 110; Gooday , “Lies, damned lies” (ref. 40).

See ref. 105.

Gooday , “Precision measurement” (ref. 105), ch. 8.

Science and Art Department, Directory (revised March 1861) (ref. 105), 42–47, and Directory (revised September 1863) (ref. 105), 61–69.

Haüy A. , An elementary treatise on natural philosophy (London, 1807).

[ Lovering ], “Elementary works on physical science” (ref. 80).

Arnott N. , Elements of physics, or natural philosophy, general and medical: Explained independently of technical mathematics (London, 1827), Introduction.

Bird G. , Elements of natural philosophy; being an experimental introduction to the study of the physical sciences (London, 1839), Preface.

Hogg J. , Elements of experimental and natural philosophy (London, 1853); Rodwell G. F. , Notes of a course of nineteen lectures on natural philosophy delivered at Guy's hospital during the session 1872–73 (London, 1873).

Hays J. N. , “Lardner, Dionysius (1793–1859)”, in Oxford dictionary of national biography (Oxford, 2004).

Hays J. N. , “The rise and fall of Dionysius Lardner”, Annals of science, xxxviii (1981), 527–42.

Lardner D. , Natural philosophy for schools (London, 1857), p. v.

See ref. 116.

A review of Lardner's textbook referred to the connection with Pouillet's “Elémens de physique”, but a closer examination shows that he followed instead Pouillet's Notions. Anon., “Review of Handbook of natural philosophy by Dionysius Lardner”, Nature, x (1874), 102; Lardner D. , Hand-book of natural philosophy and astronomy (London, 1851–53).

Gooday G. J. N. Hempstead C. A. , “Foster, George Carey (1835–1919)”, Oxford dictionary of national biography (Oxford, 2004).

According to the title pages of the book, print runs were of the order of 7,000 copies.

Feather J. , A history of British publishing (London, 1988), 144, 165; Weedon A. , Victorian publishing: The economics of book production for a mass market, 1836–1916 (Aldershot, 2003), 125.

[Lovering], “Elementary works on physical science” (ref. 80).

Lind G. , Physik im Lehrbuch, 1700–1850: Zur Geschichte der Physik und ihrer Didaktik in Deutschland (Berlin, 1992), 235, 381.

Simon J. , “The Baillières: The Franco-British book trade and the transit of knowledge”, in Fox R. Joly B. (eds), Franco-British interactions in science since the seventeenth century (London, 2010), 243–62.

See Simon , Communicating physics (ref. 11).

Howard J. , “‘Physics and fashion’: John Tyndall and his audiences in mid-Victorian Britain”, Studies in the history and philosophy of science, xxxv (2004), 729–58, pp. 732–3.

Hartog P. J. Gooday G. J. N. , “Stewart, Balfour (1828–1887)”, in Oxford dictionary of national biography (Oxford, 2004).

Van Arsdel R. T. , “Macmillan family (per. c.1840–1986)”, in ibid.

Snowball's textbooks were purchased by Macmillan after his death. Boase F. , Modern English biography (Truro, 1892–1921).

Buckmaster J. C. , The elements of experimental physics: Acoustics, light and heat, magnetism and electricity (London, 1864), Preface.

See Buckmaster J. C. , The elements of magnetism and electricity (London, 1875); Buckmaster J. C. , The elements of sound, light and heat (London, 1879).

See Pepper J. H. , Cyclopaedia of science simplified (London, 1869); Lightman B. , “Lecturing in the spatial economy of science”, in Fyfe Lightman (eds), Science in the marketplace (ref. 4), 97–132.

Bryant , The London experience (ref. 98), 161–3.

Kirk J. F. , A supplement to Allibone's Critical dictionary of English literature and English and American authors (Philadelphia and London, 1891).