Pixels,Patterns and Problems of Vision: The Adaptation of Computer-Aided Diagnosis for Mammography in Radiological Practice in the U.S.

Blume Stuart , Insight and industry: On the dynamics of technological change in medicine (Cambridge, MA, 1992), 35.

Tenner Edward , Why things bite back: Technology and the revenge of unintended consequences (New York, 1996), 347.

Kovalev Vassili Petrou Maria , “Texture analysis in three dimensions as a cue to medical diagnosis”, in Bankman Isaac (ed.), Handbook of medical imaging: Processing and analysis (San Diego, 2000), 231.

Kopans D. B. , “Mammography and the normal breast”, Breast imaging (Baltimore, 2007), chap. 12.

Jones Caroline A. Galison Peter , Picturing science, producing art (New York, 1998); Kemp Martin , Seen/unseen: Art, science and intuition from Leonardo to the Hubble telescope (New York, 2006); Stafford Barbara , Echo objects: The cognitive work of images (Chicago, 2007).

Schickore Jutta , The microscope and the eye: A history of reflections 1740–1870 (Chicago, 2007); Cambrosio Alberto Keating Peter , “Of lymphocytes and pixels: The techno-visual production of cell populations”, Studies in the history and philosophy of the biological and biomedical sciences, xxxi (2000), 2000–70; Dolan Brian , “Pedagogy through print: James Sowerby, John Mawe and the problem of colour in early nineteenth century natural history illustration”, The British journal for the history of science, xxxi (1998), 1998–304. The pioneering and now classic volume by Michael Lynch and Woolgar Steve , Representation in scientific practice (Boston, 1990), is a natural starting point in studies of visualization in science.

Hacking Ian , Representing and intervening: Introductory topics in the philosophy of natural science (Cambridge, 1983); Rasmussen Nicholas , Picture control: The electron microscope and the transformation of biology in America 1940–1960 (Palo Alto, 1999); Daston Lorraine Galison Peter , Objectivity (New York, 2007).

Warwick Andrew , “X-rays as evidence in German orthopedic surgery 1895–1900”, Isis, xcvi (2005), 1–24; Pasveer Bernike , “Depiction in medicine as a two-way affair: X-ray pictures and pulmonary tuberculosis in the early twentieth century”, in Löwy Ilana (ed.), Medical change: Historical and sociological studies of medical innovation (Paris, 1993), 85–104.

Hofmann Bjorn , “The technological invention of disease”, Journal of medical ethics, xxvii (2001), 10–19.

Aronowitz Robert , Unnatural history: Breast cancer and American society (Cambridge, 2007) provides a further historical context for attitudes toward breast cancer screening and treatment, but does not refer at all to debates about computer-aided diagnosis in mammography.

Lerner Barron , The breast cancer wars: Fear, hope, and the pursuit of a cure in twentieth-century America (Oxford, 2001); Aronowitz , Unnatural history (ref. 10).

American Cancer Society, “Proceedings of the workshop on cost of screening mammography”, Cancer, lx (1987), 1669–702.

Monsees Barbara , “Screening mammography: Who will meet the need?”, Radiology, clxxxiv (1992), 30–31.

Singleton Vicky Michael Mike , “Actor-networks and ambivalence: General practitioners in the UK Cervical Screening Programme”, Social studies of science, xxiii (1993), 227–64; Clarke Adele Casper Monica , “From simple technology to complex arena: Classification of pap smears, 1917–90”, Medical anthropology quarterly, x (1996), 1996–23.

Monsees , “Screening mammography” (ref. 13), 31.

Lerner , Breast cancer wars (ref. 11); Aronowitz , Unnatural history (ref. 10); Welch H. Gilbert , Should I be tested for cancer (Berkeley, 2004), for wider discussion of early-detection techniques in cancer screening.

A few works worth mentioning here provide relevant theoretical discussions that frame ways that ‘calculation’ is developed in science and technology studies to address apparent limitations of human expertise and establish better standards and protocols of practice: Matthews J. Rosser , Quantification and the quest for medical certainty (Princeton, 1995); Howell Joel , Technology in the hospital: Transforming patient care in the early twentieth century (Baltimore, 1995); Reiser Stanley , Medicine and the reign of technology (Cambridge, 1978).

Hall Ferris , “Screening mammography: Potential problems on the horizon”, New England journal of medicine, cxxxiv (1986), 53–55.

Collins Henry , Artificial experts: Social knowledge and intelligent systems (Cambridge, MA, 1990); Kidd A. Welbank M. , “Knowledge acquisition”, in Fox J. (ed.), Expert systems ‘State of the Art’ report (Oxford, 1984), 71–80.

Jorland Gerard Oppinel Annick Weisz George , Body counts: Medical quantification in historical and sociological perspective (Montreal, 2005); Keating Peter Cambrosio Alberto , Biomedical platforms: Realigning the normal and the pathological in late twentieth-century medicine (Cambridge, MA, 2003); Marks Harry , The progress of experiment: Science and therapeutic reform in the United States, 1900–1990 (Cambridge, 1997).

Berg Marc , Rationalizing medical work: Decision support techniques and medical practices (Cambridge, MA, 1997).

Berg , Rationalizing medical work (ref. 21), 27.

Berg , Rationalizing medical work (ref. 21), 30.

Berg , Rationalizing medical work (ref. 21), 37. Other conceptualizations of medicine as individual craft versus standardized science are in Warwick Anderson, “The reasoning of the strongest: The polemics of skill and science in medical diagnosis”, Social studies of science, xxii (1992), 653–84.

Daston Lorraine Galison Peter , “The image of objectivity”, Representations, xl (1992), 81–128; Galison Peter , “Judgment against objectivity”, in Jones Caroline Galison Peter (eds), Picturing science, producing art (New York, 1998), 327–59.

Daston Galison , “Image of objectivity” (ref. 25), 110.

Daston Galison , “Image of objectivity” (ref. 25), 118.

Galison , “Judgment against objectivity” (ref. 25), 338.

Berg , Rationalizing medical work (ref. 21).

Krupinski Elizabeth , “The future of image perception in radiology: Synergy between humans and computers”, Academic radiology, x (2003), 1–3, p. 1.

deGroot A. D. , “Perception and memory versus thought”, in Kleinmuntz B. (ed.), Problem solving research, methods and theory (New York, 1966), 19–50.

Chase W. G. Simon H. A. , “Perception in chess”, Cognitive psychology, iv (1973), 55–81.

Ericsson Anders Smith Jacqui , Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits (Cambridge, 1991).

Ericsson Anders , “How experts attain and maintain superior performance: Implications for the enhancement of skilled performance in older individuals”, Journal of aging and physical activity, viii (2000), 346–52.

Ericsson , op. cit. (ref. 34).

Nodine C. F. Krupinski E. A. , “Perceptual skill, radiology expertise and visual test performance with Nina and Waldo”, Academic radiology, v (1998), 603–12.

For an example of a current study investigating expert visualization, see Krupinski E. Tillack A. Richter L. Henderson J. Bhattacharyya A. Scott K. Graham A. Descour M. Davis J. Weinstein R. , “Eye movement study and human performance using telepathology virtual slides: Implications for education and differences with experience”, Human pathology, xxxvii (2006), 1543–56.

Lesgold Alan , Harriet Rubinson, Paul Feltovich, Robert Glaser, Dale Klopfer, and Yen Wang, “Expertise in a complex skill: Diagnosing X-ray pictures”, in Chi Michelene Glaser Robert Farr M. J. (eds), The nature of expertise (Hillsdale, NJ, 1988), 311–42.

Lesgold , “Expertise in a complex skill” (ref. 38), 329.

Lesgold , “Expertise in a complex skill” (ref. 38), 319.

Lesgold , “Expertise in a complex skill” (ref. 38), 337.

Lesgold , “Expertise in a complex skill” (ref. 38), 340.

Lesgold , “Expertise in a complex skill” (ref. 38), 319.

Bassett Lawrence Manjikian Viken Gold Richard , “Mammography and breast cancer screening”, Surgical clinics of North America, lxx (1990), 775–800; Feig S. A. Shaber G. D. Patchefsky A. , “Analysis of clinically occult and mammographically occult breast tumors”, American journal of roentgenology, cxxviii (1977), 403.

Bassett Lawrence , “Clinical image evaluation”, Radiologic clinics of North America, xxxiii (1995), 1027–39, p. 1032.

Strax Philip , “The role of the radiologist in mammography screening”, Cancer, lx (1987), 1675–7, p. 1675.

Americal College of Radiology, Mammography control manual (Reston, VA, 1990); Bassett , “Clinical image evaluation” (ref. 45), 1033.

Strax , “The role of the radiologist” (ref. 46), 1675.

Barley Stephen Bechky Beth , “In the backrooms of science: The work of technicians in science labs”, Work and occupations, xxi (1994), 85–126; Larkin G. V. , “Medical dominance and control: Radiographers in the division of labor”, Sociological review, xxvi (1978), 1978–58; Orr Julian , Talking about machines: An ethnography of a modern job (Ithaca, 1996); Suchman Lucy , “Making work visible”, Communications of the ACM, xxxviii (1995), 1995–68; Suchman Lucy , Human-machine reconfigurations (Cambridge, 2007).

Houn Florence Franke Kathleen Elliott Maria Finder Charles Burkhart Roger Fischer Ruth , “The Mammography Quality Standards Act of 1992: History and process”, Food and drug law journal, 1 (1995), 485–92.

Chan H. P. Doi Kunio Vyborny C. J. Schmidt R. A. Metz C. Lam K. L. Ogura T. Wu Y. MacMahon G. , “Improvement in radiologists' detection of clustered microcalcifications on mammograms: The potential of computer-aided diagnosis”, Investigative radiology, xxv (1995), 1105–10.

Quoted in Clarke Casper , “From simple technology” (ref. 14), 607.

Chan , “Improvement in radiologists' detection” (ref. 51), 1109.

Elmore J. G. Wells C. K. Lee C. H. Howard D. H. Feinstein A. R. , “Variability in radiologists' interpretations of mammograms”, New England journal of medicine, cccxxxi (1994), 1493–9.

Elmore , “Variability in radiologists' interpretations” (ref. 54), 1493.

Linver M. N. Paster S. B. Rosenberg R. D. Key C. R. Stidley C. A. King W. V. , “Improvement in mammography interpretation skills in a community radiology practice after dedicated teaching courses: 2-year medical audit of 38,633 cases”, Radiology, clxxxiv (1992), 39–43.

Chan Heang-Ping Doi Kunio Galhotra Simranjit Vyborny Carl MacMahon Heber Jokich Peter , “Image feature analysis and computer-aided diagnosis in digital radiography: 1: Automated detection of microcalcifications in mammography”, Medical physics, xiv (1987), 538–48, p. 538.

Chan , “Image feature analysis” (ref. 57), 539.

Chan , “Image feature analysis” (ref. 57), 540.

Vyborny Carl Giger Maryellen , “Computer vision and artificial intelligence in mammography”, American journal of roentgenology, clxii (1994), 699–708, p. 701.

Kulikowski Casimir , “Artificial intelligence methods and systems for medical consultation”, IEEE transactions on pattern analysis and machine intelligence, ii (1980), 464–76, p. 465.

Komaroff Anthony , “Algorithms and the ‘art’ of medicine”, American journal of public health, lxxii (1982), 10–13, p. 10.

Shortliffe Edward Buchanan Bruce Feigenbaum Edward , “Knowledge engineering for medical decision making: A review of computer-aided clinical decision aids”, Proceedings of the IEEE, lxvii (1979), 1207–24.

Asada N. Doi K. MacMahon H. , “Potential usefulness of an artificial neural network for differential diagnosis of interstitial lung disease: Pilot study”, Radiology, clxxvii (1990), 857–60, p. 857.

Asada , “Usefulness of an artificial neural network” (ref. 64), 860.

Wu Y. Doi K. Giger M. L. Hishikawa R. M. , “Computerized detection of clustered microcalcifications in digital mammograms: Applications of artificial neural networks”, Medical physics, xix (1992), 555–60; Wu Y. Giger M. L. Doi K. Vyborny C. J. Schmidt R. A. Metz C. E. , “Artificial neural networks in mammography: Application to decision making in the diagnosis of breast cancer”, Radiology, clxxxvii (1993), 1993–87.

Wu , “Artificial neural networks in mammography” (ref. 66), 86.

Taylor P. Hajnal S. Dilhuydy M. H. Barreau B. , “Measuring image texture to separate ‘difficult’ from ‘easy’ mammograms”, The British journal of radiology, lxvii (1994), 456–63, emphasis added.

Dreyfus H. L. Dreyfus S. E. , “Peripheral vision”, Organization studies, xxvi (2005), 779–92.

Feigenbaum Edward McCorduck Pamela , The fifth generation: Artificial intelligence and Japan's computer challenge to the world (Lebanon, IN, 1983), 64.

Dreyfus Dreyfus , “Peripheral vision” (ref. 69), 788.

Krupinski , “The future of image perception” (ref. 30), 2.

Krupinski , “The future of image perception” (ref. 30), 2.

Krupinski Elizabeth , “Response”, Radiology, xi (2004), 616.

Taylor , “Measuring image texture” (ref. 68).

For similar research on “easy” and “difficult” classification in Britain, see also Cross Simon Downs Joseph Dreszet Pierre Ma Z. Harrison Robert , “Intelligent decision support systems in the cytodiagnosis of breast carcinoma”, in Lisboa Paulo Ifeachor Emmanuel Szczepaniak Piotr (eds), Artificial neural networks in biomedicine (London, 2000).

Jiang Y. Nishikawa R. M. Schmidt R. A. Metz C. E. Giger M. L. Doi K. , “Improving breast cancer diagnosis with computer aided diagnosis”, Academic radiology, vi (1999), 22–23.

Signorini D. Slattery Jim , “Neural networks”, Lancet, cccxlvi (1995), 1500.

Dreyfus H. L. Dreyfus S. E. , Mind over machine: The power of human intuition and expertise in the era of the computer (New York, 1986).

Strax , “The role of the radiologist” (ref. 46), 1675.

Dodds S. R. , “Neural networks”, Lancet, cccxlvi (1995), 1500.

Wyatt Jeremy , “Nervous about artificial neural networks?”, Lancet, ccxlvi (1995), 1175–6, p. 1176.

Vyborny Giger , “Computer vision” (ref. 60), 705.

Nishikawa R. M. Schmidt R. A. Papaioannou J. Osnis R. Haldemann R. A. Heusler M. L. Giger D. E. Wolverton C. Comstock C. Doi K. , “Performance of a prototype clinical ‘intelligent’ mammography workstation”, in Doi K. Giger M. L. Nishikawa R. M. Schmidt R. A. (eds), Digital mammography 1996 (Amsterdam, 1996), 93–96; Mugglestone M. D. Lomaz R. Gale A. G. Wilson A. R. M. , “The effect of prompting mammographic abnormalities on the human observer”, ibid., 87–93.

Blume Stuart , Insight and industry: On the dynamics of technological change in medicine (Cambridge, MA, 1992), 35.

Ulissey Michael Roehrig Jimmy , “Mammography — Computer-aided detection”, downloaded from http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/346931-overview on 1 June 2009.

Berg , Rationalization medical work (ref. 21), 79.

Alberdi E. Povyakalo A. A. Strigini L. Ayton P. Hartswood M. Proctor R. Slack R. , “Use of computer-aided detection (CAD) tools in screening mammography: A multidisciplinary investigation”, The British journal of radiology, lxxviii (2005), S31–S40.

Wyatt , “Nervous” (ref. 82), 1177.

Dybowski Richard Gant Vanya , “Artificial neural networks in pathology and medical laboratories”, Lancet, cccxlvi (1995), 1203–7, p. 1203.

Tarassenko Lionel , “English as she is wrote”, Lancet, cccxlvi (1995), 1712.

Dybowski Gant , “Artificial neural networks” (ref. 90), 1204.

Signorini Slattery , “Neural networks” (ref. 78), 1500.