The History of Human Origins Research and its Place in the History of Science: Research Problems and Historiography

See Cartmill Matt Pilbeam David and Isaac Glyn , “One hundred years of paleoanthropology”, American scientist, lxxiv (1986), 410–20; Foley R. A. , “In the shadow of the modern synthesis? Alternative perspectives on the last fifty years of paleoanthropology”, Evolutionary anthropology, x (2001), 2001–14; Henke Winfried , “Historical overview of palaeoanthropological research”, in Henke W. and Tattersall I. (eds), Handbook of palaeoanthropology (New York, 2007), 1–45; Jurmain Robert , “Human evolution: A century of research”, San José studies, viii (1982), 1982–50; Tattersall Ian , “Paleoanthropology: The last half-century”, Evolutionary anthropology, ix (2000), 2000–16; Washburn Sherwood L. , “Fifty years of study on human evolution”, Bulletin of the atomic scientists, xxxviii (1982), 1982–43.

Casson Stanley , The discovery of man: The story of the inquiry into human origins (New York, 1939); Leakey Louis S. B. and Goodall V. M. , Unveiling man's origins: Ten decades of thought about human evolution (Cambridge, MA, 1969); Oakley Kenneth , “The problem of man's antiquity: An historical survey”, Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), ix (1964), 1964–155; Washburn Sherwood L. and Moore Ruth , Ape into man: A study of human evolution (Boston, 1974); Wendt Herbert , In search of Adam: The story of man's quest for the truth about his earliest ancestors, transl. by Cleugh James (Boston, 1955).

A notable exception is Brush Stephen G. , The history of modern science: A guide to the second scientific revolution, 1800–1950 (Ames, 1988). Bowler Peter J. and Morus Iwan Rhys , Making modern science: A historical survey (Chicago, 2005), chap. 6, contains a very brief section on human origins as well.

Some examples of this research are Cartmill Matt , “Human uniqueness and theoretical content in paleoanthropology”, International journal of primatology, xi (1990), 173–92; Corbey Raymond , The metaphysics of apes: Negotiating the animal—human boundary (Cambridge, 2005); Corbey Raymond and Roebroeks Wil (eds), Studying human origins: Disciplinary history and epistemology (Amsterdam, 2001); Sommer Marianne , Foremost in creation: Anthropomorphism and anthropocentrism in National Geographic articles on non-human-primates (New York, 2000); Stoczkowski Wiktor , “Les origines de l'homme: Epistémologie, narration et banalités collectives”, Gradhiva, xi (1992), 1992–80; Stoczkowski Wiktor , Anthropologie naïve anthropologie savante: De l'origine de l'homme, de l'imagination et des idées reçues (Paris, 1994).

See Hager Lori , “Sex and gender in paleoanthropology”, in Women in human evolution, ed. by Hager Lori D. (New York, 1997), 1–28, as well as the other articles in this volume; Gifford-Gonzalez Diane , “You can hide but you can't run: Representation of women's work in illustrations of paleolithic life”, Visual anthropology review, ix (1993), 1993–41; Moser Stephanie , “Gender stereotyping in pictorial reconstructions of human origins”, in Women in archaeology: A feminist critique, ed. by Ducros H. and Smith L. (Canberra, 1993), 75–92.

Stephanie Moser has published widely on these subjects. Her works include “The visual language of archaeology: A case study of the Neanderthals”, Antiquity, lxvi (1992), 831–44; “Picturing the prehistoric”, Metascience, iv (1993), 1993–67; and “Visual representation in archaeology: Depicting the missing-link in human origins”, in Picturing knowledge: Historical and philosophical problems concerning the use of art in science, ed. by Baigrie Brian S. (Toronto, 1996), 184–214. See also Rudwick Martin , “Encounters with Adam, or at least the hyaenas: Nineteenth-century visual representations of the deep past”, in History, humanity and evolution: Essays for John C. Greene, ed. by Moore James R. (Cambridge, 1989), 231–51. This research also intersects the issue of gender when depictions of prehistoric women are considered, as in Wiber Melanie G. , Erect men, undulating women: The visual imagery of gender, “race” and progress in reconstructive illustrations of human evolution (Waterloo, 1997). Other scholars have analysed the development of archaeological illustration, technical drawing, and representations of prehistoric archaeological sites by artists. On this see Lewuillon Serge , “Archaeological illustrations: A new development in 19th century science”, Antiquity, lxxvi (2002), 2002–34. A general examination of the visual portrayal of human evolution can be found in Ducros Albert Ducros Jaqueline and Blanckaert Claude (eds), L'homme préhistorique: Images et imaginaire (Paris, 2000); Smiles Sam and Moser Stephanie (eds), Envisioning the past: Archaeology and the image (Malden, 2005); and Clark Constance Areson , God — Or gorilla: Images of evolution in the jazz age (Baltimore, 2008).

See particularly Landau Misia , Narratives of human evolution (New Haven, 1991). Related studies include Hackett Abigail and Dennell Robin , “Neanderthals as fiction in archaeological narrative”, Antiquity, lxxvii (2003), 2003–27; and Latour Bruno and Strum S. C. , “Human social origins: Oh please, tell us another story”, Journal of social and biological structures, ix (1986), 1986–87.

A vast literature exists on all these subjects, but to see how these subjects relate to the history of human origins research see Goodrum Matthew R. , “Prolegomenon to a history of paleoanthropology: The study of human origins as a scientific enterprise. Part I. Antiquity to the Enlightenment”, Evolutionary anthropology, xiii (2004), 172–80, and “Part II. Enlightenment to the twentieth century”, ibid., 224–33, both of which contain extensive references to the relevant scholarly works on these subjects.

On this see Hudson Kenneth , A social history of archaeology: The British experience (London, 1981); Levine Philippa , The amateur and the professional: Antiquarians, historians and archaeologists in Victorian England (Cambridge, 1986); Trigger Bruce G. , A history of archaeological thought (Cambridge, 1989).

Several works address aspects of this story, see Caygill Marjorie , “Franks and the British Museum — The cuckoo in the nest”, in Franks A. W. : Nineteenth-century collecting and the British Museum, ed. by Caygill Marjorie and Cherry John (London, 1997), 51–114; Chapman William , “The Pitt Rivers Collection 1874–1883: The chronicle of a gift horse”, Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford, xiv (1983), 1983–202; Cook Jill , “A curator's curator: Franks and the Stone Age collections”, in A. W. Franks, 115–29; Mack John , “Antiquities and the public: The expanding museum, 1851–96”, in A. W. Franks, 34–50; Naylor Simon , “Collecting quoits: Field cultures in the history of Cornish antiquarianism”, Cultural geographies, x (2003), 2003–33; Petraglia Michael and Potts Richard , The Old World Paleolithic and the development of a national collection (Washington, DC, 2004).

See Briard J. , “Les ‘trois âges’ de C.-J. Thomsen à la chronologie de Déchelette”, in Le temps de la préhistoire, ed. by Mohen J.-P. (Paris, 1989), i, 24–25; Gräslund Bo , “The background to C. J. Thomsen's Three Age System”, in Towards a history of archaeology, ed. by Daniel Glyn (London, 1981), 45–50; Gräslund Bo , The birth of prehistoric chronology: Dating methods and dating systems in nineteenth-century Scandinavian archaeology (Cambridge, 1987); Morse Michael A. , “Craniology and the adoption of the Three-Age System in Britain”, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, lxv (1999), 1999–16; Rodden Judith , “The development of the Three Age System: Archaeology's first paradigm”, in Towards a history of archaeology, 51–68; Skaare Kolbjorn , “Christian Jürgensen Thomsen — Grossereren som grunnla nordisk arkeologi”, Nordisk Tidskrift för Vetenskap, Konst och Industri, lxiv (1988), 1988–81.

The most thorough and insightful discussion can be found in Grayson Donald K. , The establishment of human antiquity (New York, 1983). See also Sackett James R. , “Human antiquity and the Old Stone Age: The nineteenth century background to paleoanthropology”, Evolutionary anthropology, ix (2000), 37–49.

Several excellent works examine Buckland's research and its impact. See Aldhouse-Green S. and Pettitt P. , “Paviland cave: Contextualizing the ‘Red Lady”’, Antiquity, lxxii (1998), 756–72; North F. J. , “Paviland cave, the ‘Red Lady’, the Deluge, and William Buckland”, Annals of science, v (1942), 1942–128; Sommer Marianne , “‘An amusing account of a cave in Wales’: Buckland William (1784–1856) and the Red Lady of Paviland”, The British journal for the history of science, xxxvii (2004), 2004–74. For a broader social history of the discovery see Sommer Marianne , Bones and ochre: The curious afterlife of the Red Lady of Paviland (Cambridge, MA, 2008). On Buckland's geological research see Rupke Nicolaas , The great chain of history: William Buckland and the English school of geology (New York, 1983).

See Angelroth M. H. , “Philippe-Charles Schmerling (1791–1836)”, Bulletin de la Société Royale Belge d'Anthropologie et de Préhistoire, lvi (1945), 44–57; Hamoir G. , “Le temps de latence des découvertes, le cas Schmerling”, Bulletin des chercheurs de Wallonie, xxx (1990), 1990–101; Henderickx Liliane , “Philippe-Charles Schmerling (1790–1836) révèle l'antiquité de l'homme grâce aux dépôts antédiluviens des grottes liégeoises”, Acta psychiatrica belgica, xciv (1994), 1994–212; Henderickx Liliane , “Les fouilles de la grotte de Remouchamps: Mise au point sur le rôle joué par Philippe-Charles Schmerling (1790–1836)”, Revue d'archéologie et de paléontologie, viii (1995), 1995–51; de Laet Sigfried J. , “Philippe-Charles Schmerling (1791–1836)”, in Towards a history of archaeology, ed. by Daniel (ref. 11), 112–19.

An exception is Grayson , The establishment of human antiquity (ref. 12).

Several early works in this tradition include Aufrère Léon , Essai sur les premières découvertes de Boucher de Perthes et les origines de l'archéologie primitive (1838–1844) (Paris, 1936); Aufrère Léon , “Figures des préhistoriens. 1. Boucher de Perthes”, Préhistoire, vii (1940), 1940–134.

Cohen Claudine and Hublin Jean-Jacques , Boucher de Perthes (1788–1868): Les origines romantiques de la préhistoire (Paris, 1989) is a particularly comprehensive and informative work. See also Blanckaert Claude , “Actualités de Boucher de Perthes”, Gradhiva, ix (1990), 1990–94; Pautrat Jean-Yves , “Boucher de Perthes et Lamarck: Métaphysique et biologie”, in Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744–1829, ed. by Laurent Goulven (Paris, 1997), 573–86; Pautrat Jean-Yves , “Boucher de Perthes: L'invention de l'homme antédiluvien, ou Comment devenir un auteur”, in Découverte et ses récits en sciences humaines, ed. by Carroy Jacqueline and Richard Nathalie (Paris, 1998), 173–93; Richard Nathalie , “Le temps catastrophiste de Boucher de Perthes”, in Le temps de la préhistoire, ed. by Mohen J.-P. (Paris, 1989), 8–9.

See Gruber Jacob W. , “Brixham cave and the antiquity of man”, in Context and meaning in cultural anthropology, ed. by Spiro Melford E. (New York, 1965), 373–402; Van Riper Bowdoin A. , Men among the mammoths: Victorian science and the discovery of human prehistory (Chicago, 1993); Wilson Leonard G. , “Brixham cave and Sir Charles Lyell's … ‘The Antiquity of Man’: The roots of Hugh Falconer's attack on Lyell”, Archives of natural history, xxiii (1996), 1996–97.

See Bynum W. F. , “Charles Lyell's Antiquity of Man and its critics”, Journal of the history of biology, xvii (1984), 153–87; and Cohen Claudine , “Charles Lyell and the evidences of the antiquity of man”, in Lyell: The past is key to the present, ed. by Blundell Derek J. and Scott Andrew C. (London, 1998), 83–93.

Kehoe Alice Beck , “The invention of prehistory”, Current anthropology, xxxii (1991), 467–76; Kehoe Alice Beck , “Recognizing the foundation of prehistory: Daniel Wilson, Robert Chambers, and John Lubbock”, in Assembling the past: Studies in the professionalization of archaeology, ed. by Emmerichs Mary Beth and Kehoe Alice B. (Albuquerque, 1999), 53–68. On Wilson also see McKillop A. B. , “Evolution, ethnology, and poetic fancy: Sir Daniel Wilson and mid-Victorian science”, in Science, pseudo-science and society, ed. by Hanen Marsha P. Osler Margaret J. and Weyant Robert G. (Waterloo, 1980), 193–214.

See Chippindale Christopher , “The invention of words for the idea of ‘prehistory”’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, liv (1988), 304–14; Clermont Norman and Smith Philip E. L. , “Prehistoric, prehistory, prehistorian … who invented the terms?”, Antiquity, lxiv (1990), 1990–102; Coye Noël , “L'émergence du concept de temps préhistorique”, in La préhistoire en France, musées, écoles de fouilles, associations … du XIX siècle à nos jours, ed. by Duval A. (Paris, 1992), 139–48; Daniel Glynn and Renfrew Colin , The idea of prehistory, 2nd edn (Edinburgh, 1988).

For some works that address aspects of this subject see Richard Nathalie , “L'institutionalisation de la préhistoire”, in Les débuts des sciences de l'homme, ed. by Lécuyer B.-P. and Matalon B. (Paris, 1992), 189–207; dos Santos Manuel Farinha , “Estudos de pre-historia em Portugale de 1850 a 1880”, Anais da Academia Portuguesa da História, xxvi (1980), 1980–97; Willey Gordon R. and Sabloff Jeremy A. , A history of American archaeology (San Francisco, 1974).

Laurent Goulven , “Edouard Lartet (1801–1871) et la paléontologie humaine”, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française, xc (1993), 22–30.

See Beyls Pascal , Gabriel de Mortillet géologue, préhistorien (Grenoble, 1999); Pautrat Jean-Yves , “La Préhistorique de G. de Mortillet: Un histoire géologique de l'homme”, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française, xc (1993), 1993–59; Richard Nathalie , “Le temps transformiste de Gabriel de Mortillet”, in Le temps de la préhistoire, ed. by Mohen J.-P. (Paris, 1989), 10–11; Richard Nathalie , “La revue L'Homme de Gabriel de Mortillet: Anthropologie et politique au début de la troisième république”, Bulletin et mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris, n.s., i (1989), 1989–55; Richard Nathalie , “L'archéologie: Démarches savantes et conceptions naïves. L'anthropopithèque de G. De Mortillet, le débat sur l'ancêtre de l'homme au XIXe siècle”, Les nouvelles de l'archéologie, xliv (1991), 1991–29.

See de Bont Raf , “The creation of prehistoric man: Aimé Rutot and the eolith controversy, 1900–1920”, Isis, xciv (2003), 604–30; O'Connor Anne , “Geology, archaeology, and ‘the raging vortex of the “eolith”controversy”’, Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, cxiv (2003), 2003–62; O'Connor Anne , “Samuel Hazzledine Warren and the construction of a chronological framework for the British Quaternary in the early twentieth century”, Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, cxvi (2005), 2005–12; Grayson Donald K. , “Eoliths, archaeological ambiguity, and the generation of ‘middle range’ research”, in American archaeology past and future: A celebration of the Society for American Archaeology 1935–1985, ed. by Meltzer D. Fowler D. and Sabloff J. (Washington, DC, 1986), 77–133; Sommer Marianne , “Eoliths as evidence for human origins? — The British context”, Journal for the history and philosophy of the life sciences, xxvi (2004), 2004–41; Spencer Frank , “Prologue to a scientific forgery: The British eolithic movement from Abbeville to Piltdown”, in Bones, bodies, behavior: Essays on biological anthropology, ed. by Stocking George (Madison, 1988), 84–116.

A notable exception is Conkey Margaret W. , “Mobilizing ideologies: Paleolithic ‘art,’ gender trouble, and thinking about alternatives”, in Women in human evolution, ed. by Hager Lori D. (New York, 1997), 172–207, which applies ideas from recent studies of gender and science to examine the way prehistoric art has been interpreted. See also Cohen Claudine , La femme des origines: Images de la femme dans la préhistoire occidentale (Paris, 2003).

For the impact of Lamarck's theory on anthropology and how he addressed the question of human origins see Blanckaert Claude , “L'anthropologie lamarckienne à la fin du XIXe siècle: Matérialisme scientifique et mésologie sociale”, in Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744–1829, ed. by Laurent Goulven (Paris, 1997), 611–29; Laurent Goulven , “Idées sur l'origine de l'homme en France de 1800 à 1871 entre Lamarck et Darwin”, Bulletin et mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris, n.s., i (1989), 1989–29; Stoczkowski Wiktor , “Lamarck, l'homme et le singe”, in Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744–1829, ed. by Laurent Goulven (Paris, 1997), 447–66.

Analysis of Darwin's impact on human origins research in the nineteenth century can be found in Bajema Carl J. , “Charles Darwin on man in the first edition of the Origin of Species”, Journal of the history of biology, xxi (1988), 403–10; Bizzo Nelio M. V. , “Darwin on man in the Origin of Species: Further factors considered”, Journal of the history of biology, xxv (1992), 1992–47; Eiseley Loren C. , Darwin's century: Evolution and the men who discovered it (Garden City, 1958); Schwartz Joel S. , “Darwin, Wallace, and the Descent of Man“, Journal of the history of biology, xvii (1984), 1984–89. On Charles Lyell's response to the idea of human evolution see Bartholomew Michael J. , “Lyell and evolution: An account of Lyell's response to the prospect of an evolutionary ancestry for man”, The British journal for the history of science, vi (1973), 1973–303.

See Arquiola E. , “Darwinism in the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris”, Clio medica, xiv (1980), 119–28; Harey J. , “Evolutionism transformed: Positivists and materialists in the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris from the Second Empire to Third Republic”, in The wider domain of evolutionary thought, ed. by Oldroyd David and Langham I. (Dordrecht, 1983), 289–310; Murphree Idus , “The evolutionary anthropologists: The progress of mankind. The concepts of progress and culture in the thought of John Lubbock, Edward B. Tylor, and Lewis H. Morgan”, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, cv (1961), 1961–300; Stocking George W. , Victorian anthropology (New York, 1987).

See Bowden Mark , Pitt Rivers: The life and archaeological work of Lieutenant-General Augustus Henry Lane Fox Pitt Rivers, DCL, FRS, FSA (Cambridge, 1991); and Thompson M. W. , General Pitt-Rivers: Evolution and archaeology in the nineteenth century (Bradford-on-Avon, 1977).

For historical examinations of the role of human phylogenies see Bergner Günther , “Geschichte der menschlichen Phylogenetik seit dem 1900 Jahrhundert”, in Menschliche Abstammungslehre: Fortschritte der Anthropogenie 1863–1964, ed. by Heberer Gerhard (Stuttgart, 1965), 20–55; Brace Loring C. , “Tales of the phylogenetic woods: The evolution and significance of evolutionary trees”, American journal of physical anthropology, lvi (1981), 1981–29; Delisle Richard G. , Debating humankind's place in nature 1860–2000: The nature of paleoanthropology (Upper Saddle River, 2007); Laurent Goulven , “Idées sur l'origine animale de l'homme en France au XIXe siècle”, in Ape, man, apeman: Changing views since 1600, ed. by Corbey R. and Theunissen B. (Leiden, 1995), 158–71.

Some general surveys of this sort include Reader John , Missing links: The hunt for earliest man (Boston, 1981); Tattersall Ian , The fossil trail: How we know what we think we know about human evolution (Oxford, 1995); Trinkaus Erik and Shipman Pat , The Neandertals: Changing the image of mankind (New York, 1993).

See particularly the following works by Zängl-Kumpf Ursula : Hermann Schaaffhausen (1816–1893): Die Entwicklung einer neuen physischen Anthropologie im 19. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt am Main, 1990); “Hermann Schaaffhausen (1816–1893) und die frühe Geschichte des Faches Anthropologie”, Anthropologischer Anzeiger, l (1992), 1992–54; “Die anthropologische Sammlung Hermann Schaaffhausens — Inhalt und Schicksal”, Medizinhistorisches Journal, xxvii (1992), 1992–97. On Rudolf Virchow's contribution to prehistoric anthropology and the Neanderthal debate see Andree Christian , Virchow als Prähistoriker (2 vols, Cologne, 1976).

See Brace Loring C. , “The fate of the ‘classic’ Neanderthals: A consideration of hominid catastrophism”, Current anthropology, v (1964), 3–43; Spencer Frank , “The Neandertals and their evolutionary significance: A brief historical survey”, in Origins of modern humans: A world survey of the fossil evidence, ed. by Smith Fred H. and Spencer Frank (New York, 1984), 1–49; Sommer Marianne , “The Neanderthals”, in Icons of evolution: An encyclopedia of people, evidence, and controversies, ed. by Regal Brian (Westport, 2007), 139–66; Trinkaus Erik , “Neandertals: Images of ourselves”, Evolutionary anthropology, i (1993), 1993–201; and Trinkaus Erik and Shipman Pat , The Neandertals: Changing the image of mankind (New York, 1993).

On the discovery of the Cro-Magnon fossils see Bouchud J. , “Remarques sur les fouilles de L. Lartet à l'abri de Cro-Magnon (Dordogne)”, Bulletin de la Société d'Études et de Recherches Préhistoriques, xv (1965), 28–36.

An especially good study is Theunissen Bert , Eugène Dubois and the ape-man from Java: The history of the first missing link and its discoverer (Dordrecht, 1989). See also Leakey Richard E. and Slikkerveer Jan L. , Man-ape ape-man: The quest for human's place in nature and Dubois' “missing link” (Leiden, 1993); Howell Clark F. , “Thoughts on Eugène Dubois and the ‘Pithecanthropus’ saga”, in 100 years of Pithecanthropus: The Homo erectus problem, ed. by Franzen Jens Lorenz (Frankfurt am Main, 1994), 11–20; Bouquet Mary , Man-ape ape-man: Pithecanthropus in het Pesthuis. Tentoonstelling ter gelegenheid van de ontdekking van Pithecanthropus erectus door Eugène Dubois in 1893 (Leiden, 1993). On the legacy of Dubois see Bouquet Mary , “Exhibiting knowledge: The trees of Dubois, Haeckel, Jesse and Rivers at the Pithecanthropus Centennial Exhibition”, in Shifting contexts: Transformations in anthropological knowledge, ed. by Strathern M. (New York, 1995), 31–55; and Bouquet Mary , “Strangers in paradise: An encounter with fossil man at the Dutch Museum of Natural History”, in The politics of display: Museums, science, and culture, ed. by MacDonald Sharon (New York, 1998), 159–72.

On this see Leguebe A. , “Importance des découvertes de Néandertaliens en Belgique pour le développement de la paléontologie humaine”, Bulletin de la Société Royale Belge d'Anthropologie et de Préhistoire, xcvii (1986), 13–31.

For a general discussion of this see Albarello Bruno , L'affaire de l'homme de la Chapelle-aux-Saints (Le Loubanel, 1987); Hammond Michael , “The expulsion of the Neanderthals from human ancestry: Marcellin Boule and the social context of scientific research”, Social studies of science, xii (1982), 1982–36; Laurent Goulven , “Les idées sur l'origine de l'homme au début du XXe siècle: Les conceptions de Marcellin Boule (1861–1942)”, in Nature, histoire, société: Essais en hommage à Jacques Roger, ed. by Blanckaert Claude (Paris, 1995), 433–42. For a discussion of the social context that shaped Boule's work on the Neanderthals see Sommer Marianne , “Mirror, mirror on the wall: Neanderthal as image and ‘distortion’ in early 20th-century French science and press”, Social studies of science, xxxvi (2006), 2006–40; and Van Reybrouck David , “Boule's error: On the social context of scientific knowledge”, Antiquity, lxxvi (2002), 2002–64.

Unfortunately the most comprehensive works are not in English. For a more biographical account see Radovčić Jakov , Dragutin Gorjanović-Kramberger i krapinski pračovjek: Počeci suvremene paleoantropologije (Zagreb, 1988); and Malez Mirko , Dragutin Gorjanović-Kramberger (1856–1936) (Zagreb, 1987). For his broader impact see Henke Winfried , “Gorjanović-Kramberger's research on Krapina: Its impact on paleoanthropology in Germany”, Periodicum biologorum, cviii (2006), 2006–52; and Trinkhaus and Shipman , The Neanderthals (ref. 32), chap. 5.

The quality of this scholarship varies considerably. Some of the better works in this genre include Blinderman Charles , The Piltdown inquest (Buffalo, 1986); Clermont Norman , “On the Piltdown joker and accomplice: A French connection?”, Current anthropology, xxxiii (1992), 1992–9; Costello Peter , “The Piltdown hoax reconsidered”, Antiquity, lix (1985), 1985–73; Millar Ronald W. , The Piltdown men (New York, 1972); Van Esbroeck Guy , Pleine lumière sur l'imposture de Piltdown (Paris, 1972); Walsh John E. , Unraveling Piltdown: The science fraud of the century and its solution (New York, 1996); Winslow John and Meyer Alfred , “The perpetrator at Piltdown”, Science, lxxxiii (1983), 1983–43.

A comprehensive and particularly insightful account can be found in Spencer Frank , Piltdown: A scientific forgery (New York, 1990). Also see Hammond Michael , “A framework of plausibility for an anthropological forgery: The Piltdown case”, Anthropology, iii (1979), 1979–58; Langdon John H. , “Misinterpreting Piltdown”, Current anthropology, xxxii (1991), 1991–31; Langham Ian , “Talgai and Piltdown: The common context”, Artefact, iii (1978), 1978–224; Tobias Phillip V. , “Piltdown: An appraisal of the case against Sir Arthur Keith”, Current anthropology, xxxiii (1992), 1992–93.

On this see Harrison Geoffrey Ainsworth , “J. S. Weiner and the exposure of the Piltdown forgery”, Antiquity, lvii (1983), 46–48.

See Spencer Frank and Smith F. H. , “The significance of Ales Hrdlicka's ‘Neanderthal phase of man’: A historical and current assessment”, American journal of physical anthropology, lvi (1981), 435–59.

Brief discussions of the Pre-sapiens theory are scattered through a number of general histories (see ref. 27), but also see the discussion in Wolpoff Milford , “Vertsszöllös and the presapiens theory”, American journal of physical anthropology, xxxv (1971), 209–16.

A prominent proponent of an orthogenetic theory of human evolution was the American palaeontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn. See Regal Brian , Henry Fairfield Osborn: Race and the search for the origins of man (Burlington, 2002); Rainger Ronald , An agenda for antiquity: Henry Fairfield Osborn & vertebrate paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History, 1890–1935 (Tuscaloosa, 1991); and Porter Charlotte M. , “The rise of Parnassus: Henry Fairfield Osborn and the Hall of the Age of Man”, Museum studies journal, i (1983), 1983–34.

On the relationship between evolution theory and human origins research see Bowler Peter J. , Theories of human evolution: A century of debate, 1844–1944 (Baltimore, 1986); Bowler Peter J. , “Holding your head up high: Degeneration and orthogenesis in theories of human evolution”, in History, humanity and evolution, ed. by Moore (ref. 6), 329–53; Bowler Peter J. , “The geography of extinction: Biogeography and the expulsion of ‘ape men’ from human ancestry in the early twentieth century”, in Ape, man, apeman, ed. by Corbey and Theunissen (ref. 31), 185–93.

For a general discussion see Dennell Robin , “From Sangiran to Olduvai, 1937–1960: The quest for ‘centres’ of hominid origins in Asia and Africa”, in Studying human origins: Disciplinary history and epistemology, ed. by Corbey Raymond and Roebroeks Wil (Amsterdam, 2001), 45–66.

See Jia Lanpo and Huang Weiwen , The story of Peking Man: From archaeology to mystery, transl. by Yin Zhiqi (New York, 1990); McCormick James P. , “Dragon bones and drugstores: The interaction of pharmacy and paleontology in the search for early man in China”, Pharmacy in history, xxiii (1981), 1981–70; Wu Rukang and Lin Shenglong , “Chinese palaeoanthropology: Retrospect and prospect”, in Palaeoanthropology and Palaeolithic archaeology in the People's Republic of China, ed. by Wu Rukang and Olsen John W. (New York, 1985), 1–27; Zhou Ming Zhen and Ho Chuan Kun , “History of the dating of Homo erectus at Zhoukoudian”, Geological Society of America special paper no. 242 (1990), 69–74. On the interrelationship of palaeoanthropology and politics see Sautman Barry , “Peking Man and the politics of paleoanthropological nationalism in China”, Journal of Asian studies, lx (2001), 2001–124.

See Reed Charles A. , “A short history of the discovery and early study of the Australopithecines: The first find to the death of Robert Broom (1924–1951)”, in Hominid origins: Inquiries past and present, ed. by Reichs Kathleen J. (Washington, DC, 1983), 1–77; Tobias Phillip V. , Dart, Taung, and the “missing link”: An essay on the life and work of Raymond Dart (Johannesburg, 1984); Tobias Phillip V. , “Ape-like Australopithecus after seventy years: Was it a hominid?”, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, iv (1998), 1998–308.

See Tobias Phillip V. , “The South African early fossil hominids and John Talbot Robinson (1923–2001)”, Journal of human evolution, xliii (2002), 563–76.

On Robinson and Clark's contributions to palaeoanthropology see Sigmon B. A. , “Theoretical models and research directions in human evolution: The influence of W. E. Le Gros Clark and J. T. Robinson”, Human evolution, vii (1992), 61–62.

Numerous biographies and books discuss the Leakeys' research and the impact of their discoveries and theories. See particularly Cole Sonia , Leakey's luck: The life of Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey, 1903–1972 (London, 1975); and Morell Virginia , Ancestral passions: The Leakey family and the quest for humankind's beginnings (New York, 1995). On specific aspects of their research see Walker A. C. , “Louis Leakey, John Napier and the history of Proconsul“, Journal of human evolution, xxii (1992), 1992–54; and Tobias Phillip V. , “Premature discoveries in science, with special reference to ‘Australopithecus’ and ‘Homo habilis”’, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, cxl (1996), 1996–64.

See particularly Lewin Roger , Bones of contention: Controversies in the search for human origins (New York, 1987).

Some examples of this research include Harris John M. Leakey Meave G. and Brown Francis H. , “A brief history of research at Koobi Fora, northern Kenya”, Ethnohistory, liii (2006), 35–69; Schlanger Nathan , “Making the past for South Africa's future: The prehistory of Field-Marshal Smuts (1920s–1940s)”, Antiquity, lxxvi (2002), 2002–9; Shepherd Nick , “The politics of archaeology in Africa,” Annual review of anthropology, xxxi (2002), 2002–209.

For the history of palaeoanthropological research in East Africa at the end of the twentieth century see Gibbons Ann , The first human: The race to discover our earliest ancestors (New York, 2006). See also Minugh-Purvis N. , “The modern human origins controversy: 1984–1994”, Evolutionary anthropology, iv (1995), 1995–7.

See Delisle Richard , “Human palaeontology and the evolutionary synthesis during the decade 1950–1960”, in Ape, man, apeman, ed. by Corbey and Theunissen (ref. 31), 217–28; and Delisle Richard , “Adaptationism versus cladism in human evolution studies”, in Studying human origins: Disciplinary history and epistemology, ed. by Corbey Raymond and Roebroeks Wil (Amsterdam, 2001), 107–21.

Jonathan Marks has published three interesting papers on this subject: “Blood will tell (won't it?): A century of molecular discourse in anthropological systematics”, American journal of physical anthropology, xciv (1994), 59–79; “The legacy of serological studies in American physical anthropology”, History and philosophy of the life sciences, xviii (1996), 1996–62; and “Molecular anthropology in retrospect and prospect”, in Contemporary issues in human evolution, ed. by Meikle E. Howell F. C. and Jablonski N. G. (San Francisco, 1996), 167–86.

Wolpoff Milford and Caspari Rachel , Race and human evolution (New York, 1997) provides some historical background on this issue.

For one example see Hay Richard L. , “Olduvai Gorge: A case history in the interpretation of hominid paleoenvironments in East Africa”, Geological Society of America special paper no. 242 (1990), 23–37.

See Aitken M. J. , Science-based dating in archaeology (London, 1990); Badash Lawrence , “The origin of radioactive dating techniques”, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, cxii (1968), 1968–69; Burleigh R. , “W. F. Libby and the development of radiocarbon dating”, Antiquity, lv (1981), 1981–98; Goodrum Matthew R. and Olson Cora , “The quest for an absolute chronology in human prehistory: Chemists, anthropologists, and the fluorine dating technique in paleoanthropology”, The British journal for the history of science, xlii (2009), 2009–114; Marlowe Greg , “W. F. Libby and the archaeologist, 1946–1948”, Radiocarbon, xxii (1980), 1980–14; Nash Stephen E. , Time, trees, and prehistory: Tree-ring dating and the development of North American archaeology, 1914–1950 (Salt Lake City, 1999); Taylor R. E. , “The beginnings of radiocarbon dating in American Antiquity: A historical perspective”, American antiquity, l (1985), 1985–25.

David Livingstone has published several insightful works on this subject including The Preadamite theory and the marriage of science and religion (Philadelphia, 1992) and Adam's ancestors: Race, religion, and the politics of human origins (Baltimore, 2008).

Some of these issues are raised in Dennell Robin , “Progressive gradualism, imperialism, and academic fashion: Lower Paleolithic archaeology in the 20th century”, Antiquity, lxiv (1990), 549–58.