Science on Stage: Amusing Physics and Scientific Wonder at the Nineteenth-Century French Theatre

On Robin, see Robin Henri , L'almanach illustré de Cagliostro 1864. Histoire de spectres vivants et impalpables. Secrets de la physique amusante dévoilés par M. Robin (Paris, 1864); idem, L'almanach illustré de Cagliostro 1865. Histoire de la science au theatre. L'astronomie populaire. Les spectres et les secrets de la physique amusante dévoilée par M. Robin (Paris, 1865); Dif Max , Histoire illustrée de la prestidigitation (Paris, 1986), 83–88; Mannoni Laurent , “La lanterne magique du boulevard du crime: Henri Robin, fantasmagore et magicien”, 1895: Bulletin de l'Association Française de Recherche sur l'Histoire du Cinema, June 1994, 5–26; idem, Le grand art de la lumière et de l'ombre: Archéologie du cinema (Paris, 1995), 235–9; and Moynet Georges , Trucs et décors: Explication raisonnée de tous les moyens employés pour produire les illusions théâtrales (Geneva, 1973), 276–81.

On the history of nineteenth-century magic and magicians, see, for example, Booth Michael R. , Victorian spectacular theatre, 1850–1910 (London, 1981); Cook James W. , The arts of deception: Playing with fraud in the age of Barnum (Cambridge, MA, 2001); During Simon , Modern enchantments: The cultural power of secular magic (Cambridge, MA, 2002); and Lamb Geoffrey , Victorian magic (London, 1976). History of conjuring written by magicians themselves can also be very useful. In particular, see Dif , op. cit. (ref. 1); Milbourne Christoper , The illustrated history of magic (New York, 1973); and Steinmeyer Jim , Hiding the elephant: How magicians invented the impossible and learned to disappear (New York, 2003).

Isherwood Robert , “Entertainment in the Parisian fairs in the eighteenth century”, The journal of modern history, liii (1981), 24–48, p. 47; and idem, Farce and fantasy: Popular entertainment in eighteenth-century Paris (New York, 1986), 199, 251.

Figuier Louis , Les merveilles de la science ou description populaire des inventions modernes (4 vols, Paris, 1867–91); idem, Les mystères de la science (2 vols, Paris, 1892–93); and Flammarion Camille , Les curiosités de la science (Paris, 1901).

Brunet Brigitte , Le théâtre de boulevard (Paris, 2004), 4–13. On the importance of the theatre in the lives of Parisians, see Weber Eugen , France, fin de siècle (Cambridge, MA, 1986), 59–176.

See, for example, de Vaulabelle A. and Hémardinquer Ch. , La science au théatre: Étude sur les procédées scientifiques en usage dans le théatre moderne (Paris, 1908), 124–36. On the panoramas and dioramas in Paris at the time, see Schwartz Vanessa , Spectacular realities: Early mass culture in fin-de-siècle Paris (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1999), 149–76.

See, for example, Lachapelle Sofie , “From the stage to the laboratory: Magicians, psychologists, and the science of illusion”, Journal of the history of behavioral sciences, xliv (2008), 319–34; and Morus Iwan Rhys , “Seeing and believing science”, Isis, xcvii (2006), 2006–10.

Morus , op. cit. (ref. 7), 104.

On French occultism, see Harvey David Allen , Beyond enlightenment: Occultism and politics in modern France (Paris, 2005); and Monroe John Warne , Laboratories of faith: Mesmerism, spiritism, and occultism in modern France (Ithaca, 2008). On British occultism, see Owen Alex , The place of enchantment: British occultism and the culture of the modern (Chicago, 2004).

On extreme manifestations of faith in nineteenth-century France, see Harris Ruth , Lourdes: Body and spirit in the secular age (Bath, 1999); Harris Ruth , “Possession on the borders: The ‘mal de morzine’ in nineteenth-century France”, Journal of modern history, lxix (1997), 1997–78; Kselman Thomas , Miracles and prophecies in nineteenth-century France (New Brunswick, 1983); Lachapelle Sofie , “Between miracle and sickness: Louise Lateau and the experience of stigmata and ecstasy”, Configurations, xii (2004), 2004–105. On French spiritism and séances, see Edelman Nicole , Voyantes, guérisseuses et visionnaires en France, 1785–1914 (Paris, 1995); Monroe , op. cit. (ref. 9); Sharp Lynn L. , Secular spirituality: Reincarnation and spiritism in nineteenth century France (Lanham, MD, 2006); and Lachapelle Sofie , “A world outside of science: French attitudes toward mediumistic phenomena, 1853–1931”, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Notre Dame, 2002.

See Secord James A. , “Knowledge in transit”, Isis, xcv (2004), 654–72, and Lightman Bernard , Victorian popularizers of science: Designing nature for new audiences (Chicago, 2007), p. ix. On the geography of scientific knowledge, see Livingstone David N. , Putting science in its place: Geographies of scientific knowledge (Chicago, 2003). On popular science and popularizers, see Fyfe Aileen and Lightman Bernard (eds), Science in the marketplace: Nineteenth-century sites and experiences (Chicago, 2007); and Lightman , op. cit., particularly pp. 5–17, for an historiography on the topic. On the history of the popularization of science in France, see Béguet Bruno (ed.), La science pour tous: Sur la vulgarisation scientifique en France de 1850 à 1914 (Paris, 1990); Bensaude-Vincent Bernadette , La science populaire dans la presse et l'édition, XIXe et XXe siècles (Paris, 1997); and Pyenson Susan Sheets , “Popular science periodicals in Paris and London: The emergence of a low scientific culture, 1820–1875”, Annals of science, xlii (1985), 1985–72.

On Nollet, see for example, Lynn Michael R. , Popular science and public opinion in eighteenth-century France (Manchester, 2006), 1–2, 22–25.

Ibid., 1–2, 32–33, 50–51.

Chabaud Gilles , “La physique amusante et les jeux expérimentaux en France au XVIIIème siècle”, Ludica, ii (1996), 61–73; idem, “Science, magie et illusion: Les romans de la physique amusante (1784–1789)”, Revue du roman populaire, viii (1997a), 18–37; idem, “Entre sciences et sociabilités: Les expériences de l'illusion artificielle en France à la fin du XVIIIème siècle”, Bulletin de la Société d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, xliv (1997b), 36–42.

Chabaud , op. cit. (ref. 14, 1997b), 36. On amusing physics during the eighteenth century, see Chabaud , op. cit. (ref. 14, 1996, 1997a, 1997b); and Lynn , op. cit. (ref. 12).

See, for example, Blocquel Simon-François , Les mille et un tours, ou expériences de physique amusante et de magie blanche (Paris, 1856, 1869); Delarue A.-O. , Le magicien des salons, ou le diable couleur de rose: Recueil nouveau de tours d'escamotage, de physique amusante, de chimie récréative, de tours de cartes, magie blanche, etc., mis en ordre par Richard (A.-O. Delarue) et suivi d'un supplément par M. Delion (Paris, 1856, 1860, 1873); Le petit physicien contenant les secrets et les recettes de toutes les magies, expériences de physique amusantes, fantasmagories, … (Paris, 1854, 1855, 1860, 1864).

L'escamoteur de bonne société ou recueil de tours les plus récréatifs de physique, chimie et fantastmagorie augmentée des expériences les plus nouvelles (Paris, 1840), 5.

For example, see Savigny G.-B. , Les amusements de la science: 300 expériences faciles et à la portée de tous de physique, chimie, mathématiques, travaux d'amateur (Paris, 1905), 1–2.

Le prestidigitateur, ii (1920), 162.

Tessier Henri and Marcel L. , 1874 Almanach théatral (Paris, 1874), 133.

Robin , op. cit. (ref. 1, 1864), cover page.

L'illusioniste: Secret des prestidigitateurs, amateurs et professionals, i (1902), 1–2.

Robin , op. cit. (ref. 1, 1864), 10.

The Palais-Royal shows were geared, at least in part, to a wealthier audience than those of the boulevards, but the clientele was probably mixed. Isherwood , op. cit. (ref. 3, 1986), 248–9.

On the new magic of the nineteenth century, see Lamb , op. cit. (ref. 2), p. xi.

See, for example, Guides Cicerone, Paris, son histoire, ses monuments, ses musées, ses établissements divers, son administration, son commerce, ses plaisirs: Nouveau guide des voyageurs (Paris, 1854), 296.

Evans Henry Ridgely , A master of modern magic: The life and adventures of Robert-Houdin (New York, 1932), 33. On Robert-Houdin, see Fechner Christian , La magie de Robert-Houdin: Une vie d'artiste (2 vols, Boulogne, 2002); and Robert-Houdin J.-E. , Confidences et révélations: Comment on deviant sorcier (Blois, 1868).

Robert-Houdin , op. cit. (ref. 27), 289–96.

Robert-Houdin , op. cit. (ref. 27), 305–51. On the magician's time in London, see Lamb op. cit. (ref. 2), 32–34.

On the house in Blois, see Robert-Houdin , Le Prieuré: Organisations mystérieuses pour le confort et l'agrément d'une demeure (Paris, 1867).

The Robert-Houdin theatre would close down in 1917. Most of the contents of the space at the time, including some of his famous automata, were given to the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers and many were said to have been lost or damaged in the 1930s. On the magician's trip to Algeria, see Robert-Houdin , op. cit. (ref. 27), 356–402. On the fate of his automata at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, see Hamel Maurice , “Robert Houdin évoqué par sa petite fille”, Comeadia, 29 July 1928, 31–32.

Saliès Pierre , Le commandeur Marius Cazeneuve (Toulouse, 1983), 73, lists many other inventions, mostly linked with time and space calculations. On Cazaneuve's experiences in Madagascar, see Cazeneuve Marius , A la cour de Madagascar, magie et diplomatie (Paris, 1896); and Paillard Yvan G. , “Visions mythiques d'une Afrique « colonisable »: Madagascar et les fantasmes européens à la fin du XIXème siècle”, Revue française d'histoire d'outre-mer, lxxvii (1990), 1990–76.

Salies , op. cit. (ref. 32), 17.

Parisien Le Rire , Fabrique d'appareils de prestidigitation & d'illusion: Catalogue general (Paris, n. d.), 111.

For example, see the Journal de la prestidigitation, i, no. 1 (1895), 8.

Blanche A. , “L'illusion au théâtre”, Journal de la prestidigitation, vii, no. 28 (1911), 2–3.

Moynet Georges , L'envers du théâtre: Machines et decorations (Paris, 1873), 2–9.

de Nansouty Max , Les trucs du théâtre, du cirque et de la foire (Paris, 1909), 6.

Vaulabelle and Hémardinquer , op. cit. (ref. 6), 1.

Vaulabelle and Hémardinquer , op. cit. (ref. 6); Moynet , op. cit. (ref. 37); idem, op. cit. (ref. 1); and Nansouty , op. cit. (ref. 38).

Nansouty , op. cit. (ref. 38), 27–31; Moynet , op. cit. (ref. 37), 103–11. According to Nansouty, gas lighting replaced oil lighting as early as the 1820s. As for the use of electricity at the theatre, it began during the Exposition d'Électricité of Paris in 1881.

Nansouty , op. cit. (ref. 38), 36.

Ibid., 37–42.

Ibid., 43–45.

Ibid., 48.

Vaulabelle and Hémardinquer , op. cit. (ref. 6), 289.

Nansouty , op. cit. (ref. 38), 59–63.

Robertson E. G. , Fantasmagorie de Robertson, cour des capuchines, près la place Vendôme. Tous les jours à sept heures (Paris, 1800), 7. On Robertson, see Levie Françoise , Etienne-Gaspard Robertson: La vie d'un fantasmagore (Brussels, 1990).

Isherwood , op. cit. (ref. 3, 1986), 199–200.

On Pepper and his ghosts, see Lightman , op. cit. (ref. 11), 167–9, 196–218; Lightman Bernard , “Lecturing in the spatial economy of science”, in Fyfe and Lightman (eds), op. cit. (ref. 11), 111–24; Morus Iwan Rhys , “‘More the aspect of magic than anything natural’: The philosophy of demonstration”, ibid., 336–70. On Robin and the appropriation of Pepper's ghosts, see Mannoni , op. cit. (ref. 1, 1995), 106.

Fourtier H. , Projections et agrandissements. Manuel pratique de la lanterne de projection. Description et conduite des appareils. Fabrication des tableaux, agrandissements et fantasmagorie (Paris, 1889), 177.

Moynet , op. cit. (ref. 1), 277. There has been some work aiming to recover the experiences of past audiences of popular science at various sites suggesting that there was no unique experience of museum displays, books, or lectures. On the audience and its understanding and appropriation of a performance or a display, see, for example, Cooter Roger and Pumfrey Stephen , “Separate spheres and public places: Reflections on the history of science popularization and science in popular culture”, History of science, xxxii (1994), 237–67; and Alberti Samuel J. M. , “The museum affect: Visiting collections of anatomy and natural history”, in Fyfe and Lightman (eds), op. cit. (ref. 11), 371–403.

Fourtier , op. cit. (ref. 51), 178.

Moynet , op. cit. (ref. 1), 276–81. There seems to be some confusion as to when the play was first staged. Moynet claims the play first took place in 1866.

Ibid., 281–2.

Ibid., 274–6.

On the association of magicians and early cinema, see Barnouw , The magician and the cinema (New York, 1981); Deslandes Jacques , Le boulevard du cinéma à l'époque de Georges Méliès (Paris, 1963); Malthête-Méliès Madeline , Méliès et la naissance du spectacle cinématographique (Paris, 1984); Mannoni , op. cit. (ref. 1, 1995); North Dan , “Magic and illusion in early cinema”, Studies in French cinema, i (2001), 2001–79; and Solomon Matthew , “Up-to-date magic: Theatrical conjuring and the trick film”, Theatre journal, lviii (2006), 2006–615.

Bessy Maurice and Duca Lo , Georges Méliès (Paris, 1961), 26, 175.

Barnouw Erik , op. cit. (ref. 57), 48.

Williams Rosalind , Dream worlds: Mass consumption in late nineteenth-century France (Berkeley, 1982), 78.

On magicians and their contribution to early cinema, see Barnouw , op. cit. (ref. 57).

Journal de la prestidigitation, viii, no. 32 (1912), 1–2.

On magicians performing in vaudevilles, see Milbourne , op. cit. (ref. 2), 274–92.

Lynn , op. cit. (ref. 12), 1–2.

There are many tourist guides published on Paris at the time. See, for example, L'album-guide Parisien. Théatres, concerts et spectacles divers. Analyse des ouvrages du répertoire de l'Opéra. A travers l'exposition. Les environs de Paris (Paris, 1889); Le Cicerone Parisien, indicteur industriel, commercial et artistique; guide de l'étranger à Paris (Paris, 1847); Frébault Elie , La vie de Paris. Guide pittoresque et pratique du visiteur (Paris, 1878); Guides Cicerone, op. cit. (ref. 26); Guide des plaisirs à Paris. Paris le jour, Paris la nuit. La Tournée des Grands-Ducs. Comment on s'amuse. Ou l'on s'amuse. Ce qu'il faut voir. Ce qu'il faut faire (Paris, 1899, 1906); Guide pittoresque de l'étranger dans Paris et ses environs (Paris, 1855); and de P*** Marin J. C. G. , Quinze jours à Paris ou guide de l'étranger dans la capitale et ses environs. Tableau synoptique et pittoresque (Paris, 1852). On Paris and the spectacularization of city life, see Schwartz , op. cit. (ref. 6), 1–3. On the city as a performative space, see Dierig Sven Lachmund Jens and Mendelsohn Andrew L. , “Introduction: Toward an urban history of science”, Osiris, 2nd ser., xviii (2003), 2003–19.

Owen , op. cit. (ref. 9), 7.