Physics,Machines and Musical Pedagogy in Nineteenth-Century Germany

See Maxine Berg's seminal work, The machinery question and the making of political economy 1815–1848 (Cambridge, 1980), 2, 83, 153, 211, and 325.

Marx Karl , Grundrisse (1857–58), transl. by Nicolaus Martin (Harmondsworth, 1973), 692 and 704.

Schaffer Simon , “Babbage's intelligence: Calculating engines and the factory system”, Critical inquiry, xxi (1994), 203–77.

Ashworth William J. , “Memory, efficiency, and symbolic analysis: Charles Babbage, John Herschel, and the industrial mind”, Isis, lxxxvii (1996), 629–53.

Shapin Steven , A social history of truth: Civility and science in seventeeth-century England (Chicago and London, 1994); Schaffer Simon , “Experimenters ‘techniques, dyers’ hands, and the electric planetarium”, Isis, lxxxviii (1997), 456–83; Morus Iwan Rhys , Frankenstein's children: Electricity, exhibition, and experiment in early nineteenth-century London (Princeton and London, 1998); and Sibum H. Otto , “Reworking the mechanical value of heat: Instruments of precision and gestures of accuracy in early Victorian England”, Studies in history and philosophy of science, xxvi (1995), 73–106.

For an account of the status of skill relevant to natural philosophy in the German territories during the early nineteenth century, see Jackson Myles W. , Spectrum of belief: Joseph von Fraunhofer and the craft of precision optics (Cambridge, MA and London, 2000), especially pp. 99–142.

This part of my story is reminiscent of Michel Foucault's work on regimes of institutionalized training during the early nineteenth century. See his Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison, transl. by Sheridan A. (New York, 1977).

Paddison Max , “Music as ideal: The aesthetics of autonomy”, in The Cambridge history of nineteenth-century music, ed. by Samson Jim (Cambridge, 2002), 318–42, p. 321.

Koch Heinrich Christoph , “The aim and the inner nature of compositions and, above all, the way in which they arise [Music and Feeling]” from Versuch einer Anleitung zur Composition (1782) (Rudolstadt and Leipzig, 1782–93), i (1782), 16, as translated in Aethetics and the art of musical composition in the German Enlightenment: Selected writings of Sulzer Johann Georg Koch Heinrich Christoph , ed. by Baker Nancy Kovaleff Christiansen Thomas (Cambridge, 1995), 144.

Paddison, op. cit. (ref. 8), 322.

Schlegel Friedrich , on the other hand, held another view, as equally hostile to eighteenth-century affect theories as the first, which was taken up Eduard Hanslich in the mid-nineteenth century. Paddison, op. cit. (ref. 8), 322. See also Bowie Andrew , “Music and the rise of aesthetics”, in Samson (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 8), 29–54, pp. 33–36.

See Jackson Myles W. , “Harmonious investigators of nature: Music and the persona of the German Naturforscher in the nineteenth century”, Science in context, xvi (2003), 121–45. On the relationship between music and German nationalism, see the excellent collection of essays, Music and German national identity , ed. by Applegate Celia Potter Pamela (Chicago, 2002). For the importance of the singing of hymns and Lieder to the moral Bildung of the Volk, see Horstig , “Nach einer erfolgten Aufforderung, etwas von den Wirkungen der Tonkunst, und des Gesanges insbesondere, auf gesellige Verhältnisse in moralischer Hinsicht zu sagen”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, ix (1806), cols 129–32. The importance of music as a source of Bildung (particularly for children) was the subject of numerous articles in Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung during the second decade of the nineteenth century, due in large part to the publication of Michael Traugott Pfeiffer and Hans Georg Nägeli, Gesangsbildungs-Lehre nach Pestalozzischen Grundsätzen in 1810. See, for example, “Recension”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung , xiii (1811), cols 465–75 and 481–6; Dreist K. A. , “Zweytes Wort über die Gesangbildungs-Lehre nach Pestalozzi's Grundsätzen von M. J. Pfeiffer and H. G. Nägeli”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, xiii (1811), cols 833–42, 858–79 and 876–8; Lindner M. Fr. W. , “Was ist für die Gesangs-Bildung geschehn?”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, xiii (1811), cols 3–8, 17–23, 33–43 and 49–59; Wendt Am. Prof. , “Betrachtungen über Musik, und insbesondere über den Gesang, als Bildungsmittel in der Erziehung”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, xiii (1811), cols 281–7, 297–303, 316–24 and 333–41; anon., “Recension von Gesangsbildungslehre für den Männerchor, von Pfeiffer u. Nägeli”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, xx (1818), cols 533–9; Benelli Anton , “Einige Bemerkungen über Lehrer der Singkunst”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, xx (1818), cols 697–702; idem, “Einige Worte über die musikalische Bildung jetziger Zeit”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung , xxi (1819), cols 565–76; and Marx A. B. , “Einfluβ der Musik auf Sittlichkeit”, Berliner allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, iv (1827), 395–7.

Irving John , “The invention of tradition”, in Samson (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 8), 178–212, p. 193.

See, for example, Metzner Paul , Crescendo of the virtuoso: Spectacle, skill, and self-promotion in Paris during the Age of Reformation (Berkeley, CA, 1998), 113–59.

Kramer Lawrence , Musical meaning: Toward a critical history (Berkeley, CA, 2002), 68–99.

Weber William , Music and the middle class: The social structure of concert life in London, Paris and Vienna (London, 1975), 10. On the importance of choral society songs to the formation of an identity for German investigators of nature and physicians, see Jackson , op. cit. (ref. 12).

Weber, op. cit. (ref. 16), 22.

Ibid., 20.

Ibid., 20.

Ibid., 34.

Wiener Zuschauer, 10 June 1846, 733–4, as cited in Weber, op. cit. (ref. 16), 20.

Weber , op. cit. (ref. 16), 19–21.

Émile Deschamps, Oeuvres (Paris, 1873), iv, 35, as cited in Weber, op. cit. (ref. 16), 22.

Weber , op. cit. (ref. 16), 34.

For the seminal study on regimes of instruction in the early nineteenth century, see Foucault , op. cit. (ref. 7). For an outstanding account of the role of pedagogy in physics, see Warwick Andrew , Masters of theory: Cambridge and the rise of mathematical physics (Chicago and London, 2003).

See Charlton David Musgrave Michael , “Johann Bernhard Logier”, The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians, ed. by Sadie Stanley (London, 2001), xv, 75–77.

Logier J. B. , The first companion to the royal patent chiroplast, or hand director: A new invented apparatus for facilitating the attainment of a proper execution on the piano-forte (London, c. 1818).

Logier J. B. in Schilling Gustav , Encyclopädie der gesammten musikalischen Wissenschaften oder Universal-Lexikon der Tonkunst (6 vols, Stuttgart, 1835–38), iv, 434–7, p. 434, and Weber E. , “Ueber den Werth des Chiroplasten in Bezug auf den in No. 2 der Leipziger Zeitschrift für Musik unter der Rubik; Ueber den Handleiter enthaltenen Aufsatz”, in Neue Leipziger Zeitschrift für Musik, i (1834), 237–9, p. 237.

A London Musician, “Entstehung und Verbreitung der Logier' schen Lehrart”, in Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, xxvi (1824), cols 409–12, col. 409.

Logier, op. cit. (ref. 27), 1.

Ibid., 7.

Ibid., 7.

Ibid., 5.

Ibid., 5.

Ibid., 8.

Ibid., 8 (italics in the original).

Ibid., 6.

Ibid., 6.

Ibid., 7.

Ibid., 4.

Ibid., p. i.

Ibid., p. ii.

One account challenged this success, claiming that by 1818 Logier's method was enjoying only limited success, with instructors in London, Dublin, Edinburgh, Manchester, Halifax, Cork, Newry, Cashel, Chester, Liverpool, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Preston, Sheffield and Rochester teaching a total of only fifty students ( Ma C. F. , “Einige Nachricht über den Chiroplasten und die neue musikalische Unterweisung des Herrn Logier in England”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, xx (1818), cols 893–8, col. 896). Another article contradicted this view, arguing that Logier had over 400 students by 1816 in two London schools alone. See A London Musician, op. cit. (ref. 29), col. 411.

Logier J. B. , A short account of the progress of J. B. Logier's system of musical education in Berlin, and its subsequent introduction by orders of the Prussian government into the public seminaries, for its general promulgation through the Prussian states with a brief sketch of the present state of music in Berlin (London, 1824), 35.

Logier J. B. , A system of the science of music and practical composition; incidentally comprising what is usually understood by the term thorough bass (London, 1827), p. xii, note.

Ibid., 9. See also Weber , op. cit. (ref. 28), 237.

Logier, op. cit. (ref. 27), p. ii.

Charlton Musgrave , op. cit. (ref. 26), 76.

As quoted in Jean-Jacques Eigeldinger, Chopin: Pianist and teacher as seen by his pupils , transl. by Shohet Naomi with Osostowicz Krysia Howat Roy and ed. by Howat Roy (Cambridge, 1986), 96. Original: Frédéric Kalkbrenner, Méthode pour apprendre le piano-forte a l'aide du guide-mains (Paris, 1831), 4.

Ma., op. cit. (ref. 43), col. 896.

Parker John R. , A musical biography: Or sketches of the lives and writings of eminent musical character. Interspersed with an epitome of interesting musical matter (Boston, 1824), 209.

Ma., op. cit. (ref. 43), col. 896.

Logier J. B. , An authentic account of the examination of pupils, instructed in the new system of musical education; before certain members of the Philharmonic Society, and others (London, 1818), 10.

As cited in Logier, op. cit. (ref. 44), 37–38. See also Ma., op. cit. (ref. 43), cols 893–8.

As cited in Logier, op. cit. (ref. 27), 9.

Anon., General observations upon music, and remarks on Mr. Logier's system of musical education (Edinburgh, 1817), 24.

Ibid., 25–26.

Ibid., 29.

Ibid., 38.

As cited in ibid., 25.

Müller C. F. , “Betrachtung des Logier'schen Musikunterrichts-Systems”, in Kollmann A. F. B. Müller C. F. , Ueber Logier's Musikunterrichts-System (Munich, 1828), 38–56, p. 38. Although the date of publication does not appear in the work, one can date it by an advertisement; see Intelligenz-Blatt zur allgemeinen musikalischen Zeitung , xxx (1828), col. 41.

Kollmann A. F. , “Bemerkungen über Hrn. J.B. Logier's sogenanntes ‘Neues System des Musikunterrichts’”, Kollmann Müller , op. cit. (ref. 61), 5–37, p. 9. Kollmann originally published his article in Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung , xxiv (1822), cols 769–74, 785–94 and 801–14. Weber E. , music teacher in Statgard, Pommerania, who employed Logier's chiroplast and teaching method, denied this charge, arguing that the chiroplast was not designed to teach twelve students simultaneously. He also denied that the contraption harmed his students' fingers. Weber , op. cit. (ref. 28), 238.

Müller , op. cit. (ref. 61), 45.

Ibid., 45.

Ibid., 47.

Ibid., 50–51.

Kollmann , op. cit. (ref. 61), 24.

Ibid., 25.

Charlton Musgrave , op. cit. (ref. 26), 76.

Weber , op. cit. (ref. 28), 238.

Schünemann Georg , Carl Friedrich Zelter, der Bergründer der Preussischen Musikpflege (Berlin, 1932), 38.

Ibid., 39.

Ibid., 40.

Stöpel Friedrich , “Auszug aus einem Berichte an das königlichen Preussischen Ministeriums des Cultus, das Logierische Lehr- und Unterichts-System in der Musik betreffend”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, xxiii (1821), cols 553–7. Stöpel was somewhat surprised to find that in Britain, only female pupils were instructed in this fashion. See ibid. , note, cols 553–4.

Ibid., cols 553–4.

Ibid., col. 555.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Logier , op. cit. (ref. 44), 15–18. See also Stöpel Franz , “Zur Beantwortung der ‘Erklärung’ des Musiklehrers J. B. Logier in No. 69 des Frankfurter Journals d. J.”, Intelligenzblatt zur Cäcilia, iv (1826), pamphlet attached to p. 52, folio 1. The pages of this pamphlet are not numbered, hence I shall refer to them as folio numbers.

Logier , op. cit. (ref. 44), 22.

Ibid.

Loesser Arthur , Men, women and pianos: A social history (New York, 1954).

Stöpel , op. cit. (ref. 79), fol. 2, note.

Logier , op. cit. (ref. 44), 23.

Ibid., 33–34.

Logier J. B. , op. cit. (ref. 28), 435.

Logier Johann Bernhard , System der Musikwissenschaft und der praktischen Composition (Berlin, 1827). Note that Franz Stöpel claimed that he translated this work and that it appeared in 1821. I have yet to find that edition, or another mention of it. And idem, Lehrbuch der musikalischen Composition. Auszug aus J. B. Logier's System der Musik-Wissenschaft, herausgegeben auf Veranstaltung des Verfassers. Zum Gebrauch für Schulen (Berlin, 1827).

Loewe K. , “Ueber Logiers Musik-System”, Berliner allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, ii (1825), 41–42 and 57–58.

Marx A. B. , “Zusatz aus andrer Feder”, Berliner allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, ii (1825), 58–60, 65–67 and 73–75, p. 60. Marx's repeated his Anglophobia in a review of Logier's Anweisung zum Unterricht im Klavierspiel und der musikalischen Komposition (Berlin, 1827 and 1829) five years later, arguing that England was a “country left behind that has never accomplished anything in music save to purchase it as if it were a fashionable article”. See idem, “Beurtheilungen”, Berliner allgemeine musikalische Zeitung , vii (1830), 413–14, p. 413.

Anon., “Beiträge zum Studium des Pianofortespiels”, in Neue Leipziger Zeitschrift für Musik, i (1834), 5–6 and 9–10, p. 5.

Ibid., 5.

Ibid., 6.

Ibid.

Brendel Franz , Geist und Technik im Clavier-Unterricht. Andeutungen zur methodischen Gestaltung desselben unter technischen, pädagogischen und künstlichen Gesichtspuncten. Lehrer Für und Lernende Eltern und Erzieher (Leipzig, 1867), 39–62.

Ibid., 42.

Kollmann argued that the chiroplast could be harmful to some children's hands and fingers, which might be too small for the finger-guide, rubbing against the corners of the finger-guide, thereby causing injury to the soft bones of the fingers. Indeed, short fingers could not bend sufficiently to pass through the apparatus, resulting in the children playing with their fingers straight, which is contrary to the rules of sound piano playing. See Kollmann , op. cit. (ref. 61), 25–26.

Walther Johann Gottfried , Musikalisches oder Lexikon musikalische Bibliothek (Leipzig, 1732), 638; Marpurg Friedrich Wilhelm (ed.), Der critische Musicus an der Spree, 50 Stücke (Berlin, 1749–50), 7; and Beer Johann , Musicalische Discurse durch die Principia der Philosophie deducirt: Und in gewisse Capitel eingetheilt, deren Innhalt nach der Vorrede zu finden: Nebst einem Anhang von eben diesem Autore, genannt der musicalische Krieg zwischen der Composition und der Harmonie (Nuremberg, 1719), 176. See also Schleuning Peter , Geschichte der Musik in Deutschland. Das 18. Jahrhundert: Der Bürger erhebt sich (Hamburg, 1984), 64.

de Brossard Sébastien . Dictionaire de Musique, 2nd edn (Paris, 1705), 221.

Kurzgefaßtes Musikalisches Lexicon (Chemnitz, 1749), 418. See also Scheibe Johann Adolf , Critischer Musikus: Neue vermehrte und verbesserte Auflage (Leipzig, 1745), 252–3. See also Schleuning , op. cit. (ref. 97), 64.

Schleuning , op. cit. (ref. 97), 64.

Scheibe , op. cit. (ref. 99), 253–4.

Chladni E. F. F. , Beyträge zur praktischen Akustik und zur Lehre vom Instrumentbau, enthaltend die Theorie und Anleitung zum Bau des Clavicylinders und damit verwandter Instrumente (Leipzig, 1821), 10.

Chladni E. F. F. , “Nachricht von dem Clavicylinder, einem neuerfundenen Instrumente, enthaltend Bermerkungen über einige etwas damit verwandete Tastaturinstrumente”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, ii (1800), cols 305–13, and idem, “Musik”, Journal des Luxus and der Moden, June 1801, 310–13.

Chladni, “Musik” (ref. 103), col. 306. By 1801, he increased the range from D to f3, or four octaves and a minor third, and by 1803, he increased it again, this time by a mere whole tone, from C to f3. See idem, “Dr. Chladni's Klavicylinder”, Journal des Luxus und der Moden, March 1803, 138, and idem, “Musik” (ref. 103), cols 310–13. Using modern pitch notation, the range of the instrument is from G3 (below concert pitch A) to E6 (the penultimate E on the piano).

Friedrich Ludwig Aemilius Kunzen and Johann Friedrich Reichardt (eds), Studien für Tonkünstler und Musikfreunde: Eine historisch-kritische Zeitschrift mit neun und dreissig Musikstücken von verschiedenen Meistern fürs Jahr 1792, in zwei Theilen herausgegeben (Berlin, 1793), Part II, 11 and 122. See also Chladni E. F. F. , “Zweyte Nachricht von dem Clavicylinder”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, iii (1801), cols 386–7, and “Nachricht” (ref. 103), cols 307–8.

Chladni's own description published in “Dr. Chladni's Klavicylinder” (ref. 104), 137–9.

Chladni , “Nachricht” (ref. 103), col. 306.

Chladni , “Dr. Chladni's Klavicylinder” (ref. 104), 138.

Kunzen Reinhardt (eds.), op. cit. (ref. 105), Part II, 12.

For example, the andante from the symphony to the Opera of the Alchemist by Schuster and the choral, “Nun danket alle Gott”, were performed on the euphone by Chladni. Popular pieces for both the harmonia and euphone included: “Un poco Adagio” and “Siciliano” from Zwölf kleine Tonstücke für die Harmonika by Röllig Karl Leopold (1754–1804) (Leipzig, c. 1786); “Harmonikasonate” by Naumann; and “Adagio for Glassharmonica in C major”, KV 617a, by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–91).

Chladni , op. cit. (ref. 102), 13. For the clavicylinder, several piano and organ pieces were recommended, such as the Court Organist of Darmstadt, Rink's C. H. Praktische Orgelschule: The twelve adagios, various chorales, and the preludes, and Gerber's Sammlung von Orgelstücken, particularly “Befiehl du Deine Wege”, ibid. , 125–6.

“vollständige und gebundene Sätze”, in Chladni E. F. F. , “Dr. Chladni's Klavicylinder” (ref. 104), 139.

Chladni E. F. F. , op. cit. (ref. 102), 34.

Ibid., 34–35.

See the review of the performance of Ms Kirchgessner, the blind harmonica virtuoso, in the Berlin court and Deutschen Theater, Kunzen and Reichardt (eds), op. cit. (ref. 105), Part I, 25. Such commercialism was seen as reducing the art of music to “Handwerk”. Genres of music that enjoyed a larger public appeal, such as folk songs, were often particularly accused of becoming “nachahmender Handarbeit für gangbaren Marktpreis”, ibid., Part II, 36.

Benda Carl , “Bemerkungen über Spiel und Vortrag des Adagio, für Dilettanten, und Dilettantinnen des Klavierspiels”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, xxi (1819), cols 817–23, note, cols 817–18.

Pederson Sanna , “A. B. Marx, Berlin concert life, and German national identity”, 19th century music, xviii (1994), 87–107.

Marx A. B. , “Mösers und Rombergs Quartete”, Berliner allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, v (1828), 23–24, as translated in Pederson, op. cit. (ref. 117), 104.

Müller Wilhelm Christian , Aethetisch-historische Einleitungen in die Wissenschaft der Tonkunst. Zwei Theile. Theil I: Versuch einer Aesthetik der Tonkunst in Zusammenhang mit den übrigen Schönen Künsten nach geschichtlicher Entwicklung (Leipzig, 1830), p. x.

Ibid.

Ibid., 309.

Ibid., 310.

“Seit einigen Jahren hat man angefangen Sonaten fürs Clavier mit gutem Beifall zu setzen: Bisher haben sie noch die rechte Gestalt nicht, und wollen mehr Gerühet werden, als rühen, d.i. sie zielen mehr auf die Bewegung der Finger, als der Herzen. Doch ist die Verwunderung über eine ungewöhnliche Fertigkeit auch eine Art der Gemüths-Bewegung, die nicht selten den Neid gebieret.… Die Franzsosen werden nun auch in diesem Sonaten-Handel, wowie in ihrem neuern Cantaten, zu lauter Italienern; es läufft aber meist auf ein Flickwerk, auf lauter zusammengestoppelte Cläusulgen hinaus, und ist nicht natürlich”, Mattheson Johann , Der vollkommenene Capellmeister (Hamburg, 1739), 233–4, as reprinted in Schleuning, op. cit. (ref. 97), 348. Johann Sebastien Bach's son, Carl Philip Emmanuel, concurred. “Es ist unstreitig ein Vorurtheil, als wenn die Stärcke eines Clavieristen in der blossen Geschwindigkeit bestände. Man kan die fertigsten Finger, einfache und doppelte Triller haben, die Applicatur verstehen, vom Blatte treffen, es mögen so viele Schlüssel im Lauffe des Stückes vorkommen als sie wollen, alles ohne viele Mühe aus dem Stegereif transponiren, Decimen, Duodecimen greiffen, Läufer und Kreutzsprünge von allerley Arten machen können, und was dergleichen mehr ist; und man kan bey dem allen doch nicht ein deutlicher, ein gefälliger, ein rührender Clavieriste seyn. Die Erfahrung lehret es mehr als zu oft, wie die Treffer und geschwinden Spieler von Profeßion nichts weniger als diese Eigenschaften besitzen, wie sie zwar durch die Finger das Gesicht in Verwunderung setzen [Augenmusik, or music for the eyes], der empfindliche Seele eines Zuhörers aber gar nichts zu thun geben. Sie überraschen das Ohr, ohne es zu vergnügen, und betäuben den Verstand, ohne ihm Genug zu thun.” Bach C. P. E. , Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen (2 parts, Berlin, 1753), Part I, 115. Schleuning , op. cit. (ref. 97), 348.

Steuber , “Ueber die ästhetische Bildung des componirenden Tonkünstlers”, in Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, xii (1810), cols 321–4 and 793–9, col. 322.

Ibid., col. 321.

R., “Ueber blinde Musiker”, in Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, ix (1807), cols 209–19, col. 214.

Müller Wilhelm Christian , Aethetisch-historische Einleitungen in die Wissenschaft der Tonkunst. 2 Theile. Theil II: Übersicht einer Chronologie der Tonkunst mit Anwendungen allgemeiner Civilisation und Kultur-Entwickelung (Leipzig, 1830), 340.

Ibid., 341.

Ibid.

Gathy August Musikalisches Conversations-Lexicon, Encyclopädie der gesammten Musik-Wissenschaft für Künstler, Kunstfreunde und Gebildete (Leipzig, Hamburg, and Itzehoe, 1835), 317.

Ibid.: “… die Kraft, die Vollendung der Ausführung.”.

Andreas Johann Burkhard Christian , Neues vollständiges musikalisches Wörterbuch, enthaltend die Erklärung aller in der Musik vorkommenden Ausdrück für Musiker und Musikfreunde (Ulm, 1832), 357.

Schilling , op. cit. (ref. 28), vi, 780–4 (which is actually a misprint in the text, as it should be 780–2), p. 780.

Ibid., 781.

Ibid., 781.

Ibid., 781.

Ibid., 781.

Ibid., 784 (actually p. 782, but misprinted as 784).

Ibid.

Walker Alan , Franz Liszt (3 vols, New York, 1983–96), i: The virtuoso years 1811–1847, 168.

Ibid., 169.

Schütz F. G. J. , Leben, Charakter und Kunst des Ritters Nicolo Paganini (Ilmenau, c. 1830), 34.

Ibid., 36.

de Laphalèque G. Imbert , Notice sur le célèbre violiniste Nicolo Paganini (Paris, 1830), 61.

Louis Spohr to W. Speyer, 5 June 1830. As quoted in de Courcy Geraldine I. C. , Paganini, the Genoese (2 vols, Norman, OK, 1957), i, 392, and Philippe Borer, The twenty-four caprices of Niccolò Paganini and their significance for the history of violin playing and the music of the Romantic era (Genoa, 1995), 6.

Schütz , op. cit. (ref. 142), 50.

Ibid.

Houghton Walter E. Jr , “The English virtuoso in the seventeenth century”, Journal of the history of ideas, iii (1943), 51–73 and 190–218, p. 55.

Maréchal Henri , Rome: Souvenirs d'un musicien (Paris, 1904), 111–12. As translated in Walker, op. cit. (ref. 140), i, 308.

Borer , op. cit. (ref. 145), 1.

Ibid., 1–2.

Ibid., 12.

Ibid., 12–13. “They all hurt; the last one kills.”.

Guhr Carl , Ueber Paganini's Kunst die Violine zu spielen: Ein Anhang zu jeder bis jetzt erschienen Violinschule nebst einer Abhandlung über das Flageoletspiel in einfachen und Doppeltönen, den Heroen der Violine Rode, Kreutzer, Baillot, Spohr (Mainz, 1829).

Guhr Carl , “Paganinis Kunst die Violine zu spielen”, Caecilia, xi (1829), 78–88, p. 78. See also Guhr , op. cit. (ref. 154), 1.

Weber Gottfried , “Vorwort” to “Paganinis Kunst die Violine zu spielen”, Caecilia, xi (1829), 76–83, p. 76.

Ibid., 77.

Ibid.

Guhr, op. cit. (ref. 154), 2 (italics my own).

Ibid., 1.

Stowell Robin , Violin technique and performance practice in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries (Cambridge, 1985), 2. Other influential teaching texts used throughout the German territories included Louis Spohr's Violinschule, mit erlaeuternden Kupfertafeln (Vienna, 1832), J. von Blumenthal, Abhandlung über die Eigenthümlichkeit des Flageolet als Anleitung zur praktischen Ausübung desselben auf der Violine, Op. 43 (Vienna, c. 1829), and Kieninger J. M. , Theoretische und praktische Anleitung für angehends Violinspieler, nach den besten Methoden eingerichtet (Graz, c. 1825). And the German cellist and founder of the Dresden School of Cellists, Justus Johann Friedrich Dotzauer, wrote his renowned Violincellschule, opus 165 in 1832, and his Violincellschule für den ersten Unterricht nebst 40 Übungsstücken, opus 126 in 1836, excerpts of which are still used by young cellists throughout the world. These works drew upon his Méthode de Violinschule of 1825. See von Seyfried Ignaz , “Recension von Méthode de Violinschule, J. J. F. Dotzauer. Violinzell-Schule von J. F. F. Dotzauer (Mainz: B. Schott und Söhne)”, Cäcilia, iii (1825), 249–62.

Pestiscus , “Ueber musikalische Lehrbücher und die neuesten unter derselben”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, ix (1807), cols 161–6 and 177–83, cols 161–2.

Ibid., cols 177–8.

Stowell, op. cit. (ref. 161), 4.

Rink John , “The profession of music”, in Samson (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 8), 55–86, p. 80.

Stowell , op. cit. (ref. 161), 4.

Rink , op. cit. (ref. 165), 79–80.

Ibid., 79–80, and Guhr , op. cit. (ref. 154), 6 and 10. See also Metzner , op. cit. (ref. 14), 132.

Guhr, op. cit. (ref. 154), 5.

Ibid., 3–4.

Ibid., 10.

Ibid., 4.

Bennati Francesco , “Notice physiologique: Sur Paganini”, Revue de Paris, xxvi (1831), 52–60, p. 53.

Ibid., 53.

Ibid., 53.

Ibid., 53–57.

Ibid., 57–58.

Ibid., 58.

Ibid., 58.

Ibid., 58.

Ibid., 59.

Ibid.

Goethe to Zelter Carl Friedrich , 9 June 1831, Goethes Werke: Herausgegeben im Auftrage der Grossherzogin Sophie von Sachsen (Weimar, 1887), Part IV, xviii, 224–5.

Müller , op. cit. (ref. 127), Part II, 325.

Ibid., 287–8. Müller maintains that Guhr's hope “became ridiculous” (p. 287). Although Guhr's school was not successful, Müller's comment was published only one year after Guhr's work. Hence, Müller was not the most objective critic.

Müller , op. cit. (ref. 127), Part II, 287.

Eigeldinger , op. cit. (ref. 49), 16.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Walker, op. cit. (ref. 140), i, 161.

Ibid., 161.

Ibid., 161–2.

Heine Heinrich , Sämtliche Werke (10 vols, Munich, 1925), ix, 275, as translated in Walker , op. cit. (ref. 140), i, 163.

See, for example, Plantinga Leon , Romantic music: A history of musical style in nineteenth-century Europe (New York, 1984), 180–203.

Ibid., 184.

Metzner , op. cit. (ref. 14), 113–59, and Kramer , op. cit. (ref. 15), 68–99.

Walker , op. cit. (ref. 140), i, 302–3.

Ibid., 285 and 315–16.

Fétis F.-J. , “Nouvelles de Paris: Concerts spirituals”, La revue musicale, iii (1828), 253–4, as translated in Walker, op. cit. (ref. 140), i, 133. See also Metzner , op. cit. (ref. 14), 139.

Liszt Franz , “Lettres d'un bachelier ès musique” (first published as a series of twelve articles in La revue et gazette musicale de Paris in 1837–39), Pages romantiques, ed. by Chantavoine Jean (Paris/Leipzig, 1912), 108. As translated by Metzner, op. cit. (ref. 14), 144.

As quoted in Walker , op. cit. (ref. 140), i, 177.

As quoted in ibid.

Ramann Lina (ed.), Franz Liszts Gesammelte Schriften (6 vols, Leipzig, 1880–83), ii, 127–8, as translated in Walker, op. cit. (ref. 140), i, 130. Munito was a performing dog with an amazing range of skills, constantly impressing scientific communities with his physical and mental feats.

“Genie”, in Schilling, op. cit. (ref. 28), iii, 190–3, p. 191.

Ibid., 191.

Steuber , op. cit. (ref. 124), col. 321.

Ibid., col. 323.

Ibid., col. 324.

Hoffmann E. T. A. , “Recension”, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, xii (1810), cols 630–42 and 652–9, col. 633.

Eigeldinger , op. cit. (ref. 49), 16.

Ibid., 13. See also Rosen Charles , The romantic generation (Cambridge, MA, 1995), 368.

Rosen , op. cit. (ref. 211), 368.

As cited in Eigeldinger, op. cit. (ref. 49), 27. See also Walker , op. cit. (ref. 140), i, 297.

As cited in Eigeldinger, op. cit. (ref. 49), 27. Chopin also disapproved of Liszt's penchant to showmanship, Walker, op. cit. (ref. 140), i, 184. For the importance of athletics in disciplining the mind and body, see Warwick Andrew , “Exercising the student body: Mathematics and athleticism in Victorian Cambridge”, Lawrence Christopher Shapin Steven (eds), Science incarnate: Historical embodiments of natural knowledge (Chicago and London, 1998), 288–326. See also idem, op. cit. (ref. 25).

As cited in Eigeldinger, op. cit. (ref. 49), 27.

As cited in ibid., 96, italics in the original.

As cited in ibid., 29.

As quoted in ibid., 40–41, italics in the original.

Kollmann , op. cit. (ref. 62), 23.

Rosen , op. cit. (ref. 211), 382.

Ibid., 364.

Ibid.

For a biographical sketch of Gottfried Weber, see Schilling , op. cit. (ref. 28), vi, 832–3.

Vorwort Gottfried Weber's Chladni E. F. F. , “Über die verschiedene Beschaffenheit des Klanges eines Instruments, nachdem es vom verschiedenen Spielern behandelt wird, auch über das Zerschlagen der Claviersaiten”, Caecilia, vi (1827), 183–8, p. 183.

Ibid., 183–4.

Ibid., 184.

Ibid., 185.

Ibid., 185.

Ibid., 185. These terms refer to J. S. Bach's style of keyboard playing.

Ibid., 186.

Ibid., 187.

Ibid.

Schilling defined the touch of a pianist as the manner in which the keys of a keyboard instrument are set into motion. It required “a tenderness of feeling”, which “resided in the fingertips”. Echoing Logier's main contention, Schilling stressed that only the fingers, and not the hands or arms, should provide the force when playing. Schilling, op. cit. (ref. 28), i, 224.

Weber , op. cit. (ref. 224), 186.

Ibid., 186.

Ibid., 187–8.

Ibid., 185, 187–8.

Chladni, op. cit. (ref. 224), 188–192.

He recommended that the reader consult Heinrich Eduard Weber's Wilhelm Eduard Wellenlehre: Auf Experimente gegründet oder über die Wellen tropfbarer Flüssigkeiten mit Anwendung auf die Schall- und Lichtwellen (Leipzig, 1825).

Chladni , Die Akustik (Leipzig, 1802), 70 and 201–2.

Ibid., 201.

Ibid., 70.

Ibid., 70–71.

Chladni , op. cit. (ref. 224), 191.

Ibid., 191–2.

Schwinning , “Ueber den Klang der Saiteninstrument”, Cäcilia, xvii (1835), 240–54. Weber, op. cit. (ref. 224) was reprinted in Cäcilia , xvii (1835), 233–40.

Schwinning , op. cit. (ref. 246), 242.

Ibid., 244–5.

Ibid., 245–6.

Ibid., 246–7.

Ibid., 247.

Ibid., 247.

Ibid., 248.

Ibid., 248–9.

Ibid., 251.

Ibid., 252. As the ethnomethodologist, David Sudinow, realized and Schwinning himself argued, one critically learns how to anticipate and connect the touch of a pleasant tone with the ensuing tones: Ways of the hand, 2nd edn (Cambridge, MA, 2002).

von Helmholtz Hermann , Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen als physiologische Grundlage für die Theorie der Musik (Brunswick, 1863).

Helmholtz Hermann , On the sensations of tone as a physiological basis for the theory of music, transl. in 1885 by Ellis Alexander J. , republished with a new introduction by Henry Margenau (New York, 1954).

Ibid., 75.

Ibid., 75–76.

Ibid., 77.

Ibid., 79.

See also Hiebert Elfrieda Franz , “Helmholtz's musical acoustics: Incentive for practical techniques in pedaling and touch at the piano”, Proceedings of the International Musicological Society, Intercongressional Symposium (IMS), Budapest, August 2000 (2003), 425–43, p. 438.

Helmholtz , op. cit. (ref. 258), 80.

Ibid., 19.

Ibid., 80–81. If more magnification was required, the tube and eyepiece of a microscope could be placed behind the metal plate AA.

The end of the other prong is thickened in order to counterbalance the weight of the doublet. The iron loop B attached to the upper prong moves horizontally. If it is moved toward to fork's yoke, the pitch will be increased (or sharpened) slightly. By moving the loop toward L, the pitch flattens (or lowers). E is an electromagnet causing the fork to vibrate with a constant, uniform motion. Ibid. , 81 note.

Ibid., 82.

Ibid., 83–84.

Ibid., 387.

Ibid., 85.

Ibid., 85.

Ibid., 86.

Hiebert , op. cit. (ref. 263), 436.

Ibid., 436–9.

As quoted in ibid., 437. See also Riemann Hugo , Kathechismus des Klavierspiels (Leipzig, 1888); Germer Heinrich , Die Technik des Klavier-Spiels, op. 28 (Leipzig, c. 1875); Riemann Ludwig , Das Wesen des Klavierklanges und seine Beziehung zum Anschlag: Eine akustisch-ästhetische Untersuchung für Unterricht und Haus (Leipzig, 1911); and Schmidt Hans , Über die Kunst des Anschlages (Vienna, 1894).

For an outstanding article on the relationship between physiology and musical virtuosity in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see Dierig Sven , “Con Sordino for piano and brain: Bohemian neuroscience in a 1900 cultural metropolis”, Configurations, ix (2001), 413–40.

As quoted in Kiener Hélène , Marie Jaëll, 1846–1925: Problèmes d'esthétique et de pédagogie musicales (Paris, 1952), 72, n. 1. See http://perso.wanadoo.fr/jc.ingelaere/jaell/expoen/index.htm.