Labscapes: Naturalizing the Lab

Kohler Robert E. , “Place and practice in field biology”, History of science, xl (2002), 189–210. Also Gieryn Thomas F. , “Three truth-spots”, Journal of the history of the behavioural sciences, xxxviii (2002), 113–32.

Cetina Karen Knorr , “The couch, the cathedral, and the laboratory: On the relations between experiment and laboratory in science”, in Science as practice and culture, ed. by Pickering Andrew (Chicago, 1992), 113–38.

Kohler Robert E. , Landscapes and labscapes: Exploring the lab-field border in biology (Chicago, 2002).

Latour Bruno , “Give me a laboratory and I will raise the world”, in Science observed, ed. by Knorr Karen Mulkay Michael (London, 1983), 141–70. Also Latour , The Pasteurization of France (Cambridge, Mass., 1988), chap. 2.

Shapin Steven , “The house of experiment”, Isis, lxxix (1988), 373–404, p. 383. Hannaway Owen , “Laboratory design and the aim of science: Andreas Libavius versus Tycho Brahe”, Isis, lxxvii (1986), 585–610. Schaffer Simon , “Physics laboratories and the Victorian country house”, in Making space for science: Territorial themes in the shaping of knowledge , ed. by Smith Crosbie Agar Jon (London, 1998), 149–80. Forgan Sophie , “The architecture of science and the idea of a university”, Studies in the history and philosophy of science, xx (1989), 405–34. Idem, “The architecture of display: Museums, universities and objects in nineteenth-century Britain”, History of science, xxxii (1994), 139–62. Traweek Sharon , Beamtimes and lifetimes: The world of high energy physicists (Cambridge, Mass., 1988), chap. 1. Gooday Graeme , “The premisses of premises: Spatial issues in the historical construction of laboratory credibility”, in Making space for science, ed. by Smith Agar , 216–45.

The few existing studies of laboratory settings deal with the political and cultural symbolism of urban or suburban places, not the natural settings. For example: Forgan Sophie Gooday Graeme , ‘“A fungoid assemblage of buildings’: Diversity and adversity in the development of college architecture and scientific education in 19th-century South Kensington”, History of universities, xiii (1994), 153–92; and Pauly Philip J. , “Summer resort and scientific discipline: Woods Hole and the structure of American biology, 1882–1925”, in The American development of biology, ed. by Rainger Ronald Benson Keith R. Maienschein Jane (Philadelphia, 1988), 121–50.

Gooday Graeme , “‘Nature’ in the laboratory: Domestication and discipline with the microscope in Victorian life science”, The British journal for the history of science, xxiv (1991), 307–41, p. 313.

Burkhardt Richard W. Jr. , “The Journal of Animal Behavior and the early history of animal behavior studies in America”, Journal of comparative psychology, ci (1987), 223–30, p. 228.

Allen Garland E. , Life science in the twentieth century (New York, 1975), chaps. 2 and 3. Nyhart Lynn K. , Biology takes form: Animal morphology and the German universities, 1800–1900 (Chicago, 1995). Allen , “The transformation of a science: T. H. Morgan and the emergence of a new American biology”, in The organization of knowledge in modern America, 1860–1920, ed. by Oleson Alexandra Voss John (Baltimore, 1979), 173–210. Gould Stephen J. , Ontogeny and phylogeny (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 167–9, 186–206. Maienschein Jane Rainger Ronald Benson Keith (eds), “Special section on American morphology at the turn of the century”, Journal of the history of biology, xiv (1981), 83–191.

Wilson Edmund B. , “Aims and methods of study in natural history”, Science, xiii (1901), 14–23, p. 19. Ritter William E. , “The marine biological station at San Diego: Its history, present conditions, achievements, and aims”, University of California publications in zoology, ix (1912), 137–248, p. 215.

Editorial, Botanical gazette, xvi (1891), 86–87.

Spalding Volney M. , “The rise and progress of ecology”, Science, xvii (1903), 201–10, p. 204. Bumpus Hermon , “Laboratory teaching of large classes — Zoology”, Science, i (1905), 260–3, p. 262.

Kohler , Landcapes and labscapes (ref. 3), chap. 2. See also Henke Christopher R. , “Making a place for science: The field trial”, Social studies of science, xxx (2000), 483–511.

Jack Homer A. , “The biological field stations of the world: A comparative and descriptive study”, Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University, 1940, i, 52–60. In addition to these seventy-six stations, another thirteen were itinerant or temporary, and fifteen more undated and probably very informal. Jack also lists twenty-one nature-study camps. Twenty-nine of the seventy-six datable field stations were defunct by 1939. I have made some additions and corrections to Jack's data. Maps of station locations are in vol. i, pp. 80–82, and data on abandonment on pp. 104–8. A greatly abbreviated version without the data is Jack, “Biological field stations of the world”, Chronica botanica, ix (1945), 5–73.

Jack , “Biological field stations” (ref. 14). Florida had five such stations, the Pacific Northwest four, and the Gulf coast just two. Their richer coastal faunas were offset by the lower density of research universities in these regions.

Pauly , “Summer resort and scientific discipline” (ref. 6), 134–5. Also Wilson Henry V. , “Marine biology at Beaufort”, American naturalist, xxxiv (1900), 339–60. Kofoid Charles A. , The biological stations of Europe, United States Bureau of Education Bulletin no. 440 (Washington, 1910). Lillie Frank R. , The Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory (Chicago, 1944). Various authors, “The Naples Zoological Station and the Marine Biological Laboratory: One hundred years of biology”, Supplement to Biological bulletin, lxviii (1985). Benson Keith R. , “Laboratories on the New England shore: The ‘somewhat different direction’ of American marine biology”, New England quarterly, lxi (1988), 55–78.

Lankester Ray E. , “An American sea-side laboratory”, Nature, xxi (1880), 497–9. Edmund B. Wilson to Charles O. Whitman, 27 Dec. 1891, Charles B. Davenport Papers general series, American Philosophical Society Library, Philadelphia, Pa. (hereafter: CBD), f. Whitman Woods Hole, Blanchard. Jordan David Starr , “The flora of Penikese Island”, American naturalist, viii (1874), 193–7.

Kofoid , Biological stations of Europe (ref. 16), 11, 18. Dean Bashford , “Notes on the marine biological laboratories of Europe”, American naturalist, xxvii (1893), 697–707, p. 702.

Kellogg Vernon L. , “The Hopkins seaside laboratory”, American naturalist, xxx (1899), 629–34.

Kofoid , Biological stations of Europe (ref. 16), 19. Dean , “Notes” (ref. 18). Lillie , Woods Hole (ref. 16), 87–88, 111.

Sharp Dallas L. , “The Marine Biological Laboratory”, Science, xxii (1893), 127–8.

Morgan Thomas H. to Conklin Edwin G. , 30 May 1911, Princeton University Biology Department Papers, Harvey Mudd Library, Princeton University, Princeton, N.J. (hereafter: PUB), Box 1, f. Biological Plans and Projects.

Sumner Francis B. to Ritter William E. , 9 June 1914, Francis B. Sumner Papers, Archives, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Cal., Box 5, f. 531. Also Provine William B. , “Francis B. Sumner and the evolutionary synthesis”, Studies in the history of biology, iii (1979), 211–40. Warder C. Allee to Libbie Hyman, 6 Dec. 1940, Warder C. Allee Papers, University of Chicago Special Collections, Regenstein Library, Chicago, Ill. (hereafter: Allee Papers), Box 18, f. 16.

Lillie , Woods Hole (ref. 16), 108. Fewkes Jesse W. , “Sea-side study on the coast of California”, American naturalist, xxii (1888), 33–14, pp. 34–35. Fewkes , “A corner of Brittany”, American naturalist, xxiii (1889), 95–109, pp. 100–1.

See Montgomery Thomas H. to Wheeler William M. , 31 July 1902, 23 Aug. 1906, both in William M. Wheeler Papers, Harvard University Archives, Cambridge, Mass., Box 23, f. M Formicidae; Montgomery to Wheeler, 11 July 1909, Wheeler Papers, Box 26; Bumpus Hermon to Wheeler William M. , 29 June 1910, Wheeler Papers, Box 6. Also Conklin Edwin G. , “Professor Thomas Harrison Montgomery, Jr.”, Science, xxxviii (1913), 207–13.

“Annual announcement Minnesota Seaside Station” [1906], Frederic E. Clements Papers, American Heritage Center, Laramie, Wyo., Box 79, f. Appointment. Benson Keith R. , “Experimental ecology on the Pacific coast: Victor Shelford and his search for appropriate methods”, History and philosophy of the life sciences, xiv (1992), 73–92. The northwest coast has a richer intertidal ecology than New England; Keith Benson, personal communication.

William M. Wheeler to Charles T. Brues, 4 Feb. 1909, Wheeler Papers, Box 6.

Kofoid Charles A. , “The fresh-water biological stations of America”, American naturalist, xxxii (1898), 391–406, pp. 391–92. Elrod Morton J. , “The University of Montana biological station and its work”, Science, xx (1904), 205–12. Henry Nachtrieb to Cyrus Northrop, 5 April 1900, Comptroller's Papers, University of Minnesota Archives, Minneapolis, Minn., f. 318. Anon., “The summer school of biology of Cornell University”, School and society, lvii (1923), 323–4.

Kohler , Landscapes and labscapes (ref. 3), chaps. 2–3.

Forbes Stephen A. , “Special report of the Biological Experiment Station”, University of Illinois Trustees report, xviii (1895–96), 302–26, pp. 302–3, 308 (quote); also ibid., xxi (1901–02), 8–10. Kofoid Charles A. , “The fresh-water biological stations of America”, American naturalist, xxxii (1898), 391–406, pp. 391, 406. Kofoid to Ritter William E. , 7 Nov. 1912, William E. Ritter Papers, University of California Archives, Bancroft Library, Berkeley, Cal., Box 13. Henry Nachtrieb, “Zoological stations: What they are and where they are”, enclosed in Nachtieb to Jens K. Grondahl, 28 Sept. 1899, Henry F. Nachtrieb Papers, University of Minnesota Archives, Minneapolis, Minn, (hereafter: Nachtrieb Papers), Box 4, f. 47. Nachtrieb to Greenleaf Clark, 30 April 1900, University of Minnesota Comptroller's Papers, f. 318.

Jack , “Biological field stations of the world” (ref. 14), ii, 334–59.

Cook Mel T. , “The Lake Laboratory at Sandusky, Ohio”, Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science, xviii (1902), 107–10, p. 110. Kofoid, “Fresh-water biological stations” (ref. 28), 394–5.

Ramaley Francis Robbins Wilfred W. , “A summer laboratory for mountain botany”, Plant world, xii (1909), 105–10. Clements Frederic E. , “The Alpine Laboratory”, Science, xxxvii (1913), 327–8. McDougal Daniel T. to Woodward Robert S. , 8 May 1913, 12 Jan. 1914, both in Carnegie Institution of Washington Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter: CIW), f. Desert Lab Research Associates. Frederic E. Clements to Mr. Lane, 15 Nov. 1918, CIW, f. Ecology Projects Proposed. Clements to William Gilbert, 13 March 1925, CIW, f. Ecology Buildings and Grounds. Allee Warder C. to Shelford Victor E. , 22 Oct. 1922, Allee Papers, Box 22, f. 2.

Forbes Stephen A. , “Special report of the Biological Experiment Station”, University of Illinois Trustees report, xviii (1895–96), 302–26, pp. 304–7. Kofoid , “Fresh-water biological stations” (ref. 28), 398–106. Richardson Robert E. to Forbes Stephen A. , [c. 22–29] Jan. 1913, Illinois Natural History Survey Papers, series 43/1/5, University of Illinois Archives, Urbana, Ill., Box 1.

Cox Ulysses O. , “The zoological survey of Minnesota”, Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science, xvii (1901), 89–93. Nachtrieb Henry to Grondahl Jens K. , 28 Sept. 1899; Grondahl to Nachtrieb , 1 March 1900; both in Nachtrieb Papers, Box 4, ff. 47, 48. Nachtrieb to Grondahl, 17 March 1900, Nachtrieb Papers, Box 1.

Nachtrieb Henry F. , “The ‘Megalops’”, The Minnesota magazine, vi (1899), 18–22. Cox Ulysses O. to Nachtrieb , 28 March, 8, 21 April, 4, 8 May 1899, all in Nachtrieb Papers, Box 4, f. 47. Kofoid Charles , “The biological experiment station”, The Illini, xxvi (1896), 665–72.

Shreve Forrest , A Montane rain-forest, Carnegie Institution publication no. 199 (Washington, 1914), 60, 104–5.

Bowers Ray , Mr. Carnegie's plant biologists (Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1992). Shreve Forrest , “Statement regarding the work and program of the Desert Laboratory”, to John C. Merriam, 23 Oct. 1928, CIW, f. Desert Lab General.

For example, Charles B. Davenport to biological committee, 20 Dec. 1903, CBD, f. Cold Spring Harbor Beginnings.

Eigenmann Carl H. to Walcott Charles D. , 19 April 1903; to Daniel C. Gilman, 7 Oct. 1903; to Carnegie Institution, 4 Oct. 1904; to Robert S. Woodward, 27 April 1906, 29 July 1907; all in CIW, f. Eigenmann. Eigenmann to Charles B. Davenport, 6 Oct. 1909, 18 Oct., 1 Nov 1911; Davenport to Eigenmann , 9 Dec. 1909, 24 Oct. 1911; all in CBD. Also Zetek James to Vestal Arthur G. , 23 Sept. 1911, Arthur G. Vestal Papers, University of Illinois Archives, Urbana, Ill. (hereafter: Vestal Papers), Box 2.

Jack , “Biological field stations of the world” (ref. 14), i, Table 4, on p. 45. France had twenty stations (sixteen of known function); western Europe had eighty-five (sixty-eight of known function).

Nachtrieb Henry to Northrop Cyrus , 5 April 1900, University of Minnesota Comptroller's Papers, f. 318. Charles A. Kofoid to Stephen A. Forbes, 16 July 1898, Illinois Natural History Survey Papers, series 43/1/1, Box 8. Jacob Reighard to Alexander Ruthven, n.d. [1915?], Alexander G. Ruthven Papers, Bentley Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich, (hereafter: Ruthven Papers), Box 52, f. 6. Of the fifteen students enrolled in the Illinois Station's course in 1898, ten were either high school teachers acquiring college credits or college graduates preparing for high school teaching. Henry Nachtrieb to Cyrus Northrop, 5 April 1900, University of Minnesota Comptroller's Papers, f. 318. Charles A. Kofoid to Stephen A. Forbes, 16 July 1898, Illinois Natural History Survey Papers, series 43/1/1, Box 8. Benson Keith R. , “Why American marine stations? The teaching argument”, American zoologist, xxviii (1988), 7–14.

Gleason Henry A. , “The biological station of the University of Michigan”, School science and mathematics, xiii (1913), 411–15, p. 411. Also Reighard Jacob to Pearse Arthur S. , 7 Sept. 1911, Ruthven Papers, Box 52, f. 5.

Elrod Morton J. , “The University of Montana Biological Station”, in Elrod to Stephen A. Forbes, 20 April 1913, Illinois Natural History Survey Papers, series 43/1/5, Box 1.

Eigenmann Carl H. , “Turkey Lake as a unit of environment, and the variation of its inhabitants”, Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science, xi (1895), 204–17, pp. 204–5. Eigenmann to Charles B. Davenport, 6 Jan. 1897, CBD.

Jack , “Biological field stations of the world” (ref. 14, 1945), 27, quoting Charles C. Adams to Jack, 25 March 1940.

Henry A. Gleason to Arthur G. Vestal, 1 Feb. 1912, 27 Oct. 1911, both in Vestal Papers, Box 2.

Charles C. Adams to William E. Ritter, 31 Dec. 1929, Ritter Papers, Box 5. Shelford Victor E. , “Grassland as a site for basic research on terrestrial animals”, Science, xc (1939), 564–5, p. 564.

Shreve Forrest , “Statement regarding the aims and work of the Desert Laboratory and the biological problems of the desert”, 5 Nov. 1931, CIW, f. Desert Lab 1931–72. Bowers Janice , A sense of place: The life and work of Forrest Shreve (Tucson, 1988).

Campbell John P. , “Biological teaching in the colleges of the United States”, United States Bureau of Education circular, ix (1891). Whitman Charles O. , “A biological farm for the experimental investigation of heredity, variation and evolution and for the study of life-histories, habits, instincts and intelligence”, Biological bulletin, iii (1902), 214–24.

Conklin Edwin G. , “Advances in methods of teaching zoology”, Science, ix (1899), 81–84, p. 84. Mark Edward L. to Davenport Charles B. , 23 Dec. 1900, CBD. Harvard College report of the President , 1888–89, 182; 1892–93, 210; 1902–03, 266. Museum of Comparative Zoology report of Curator, 1888–89, plates IV and V.

Kohler , Landscapes and labscapes (ref. 3), chap. 1.

Comstock John H. , “The insectary of Cornell University”, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station annual report, i (1888), 25–30. Fernald G. H. to Comstock , 7 Jan. 1888, John H. Comstock Papers, Box 2, Cornell University Archives, Ithaca, N.Y. Comstock, “Report of the entomologist”, Cornell University Agricultural Experimental Station annual report, iii (1890), 35–40. Comstock to Charles B. Davenport, 3 Nov. 1898, CBD. Reports of the section on entomology of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, in United States Office of Experiment Station, Bulletin, xvi (1893), 41–51; ibid., xcix (1901), 17–21; and ibid., cxv (1902), 21–22.

Conklin , “Advances in methods” (ref. 51), 84. Zeleny Charles , “The need of a vivarium”, 23 Jan. 1911, Charles Zeleny Papers, University of Illinois Archives, Urbana, Ill. (hereafter: CZ), Box 6, f. Vivarium Early Plans.

[ Zeleny? Charles ], “Provisional plan for development of zoological department”, n.d., CZ, Box 6, f. Dept. Zoology Inventories and Plans 1911–14. Edwin G. Conklin to Frank R. Lillie, 23 Jan. 1915, University of Chicago Zoology Department Papers, Special Collections, Regenstein Library, Chicago, Ill., Box 4, f. 2. Jaques Loeb to William R. Harper, 16 July 1902; Harper to Whitman Charles O. , 11 Sept 1902; both in University of Chicago Presidents Papers, Special Collections, Regenstein Library, Chicago, Ill. (hereafter: UC-Pres), Box 17, f. 13.

Conklin , “Advances in methods” (ref. 51), 84.

Conklin Edwin G. , “Report of the director of the University Vivarium”, University of Pennsylvania Provost's report, 1898–99, 153–5. Anon., “The Vivarium”, Old Penn weekly review, i, issue of 14 March 1903, 6. Calvert Philip P. , “The University Vivarium”, University of Pennsylvania, Alumni register, iv (1900), 13–14.

Macfarlane John M. , “The Vivarium”, Old Penn weekly review, i, issue of 14 March 1903, 6. Conklin Edwin G. , “Report of the Director of the University Vivarium”, University of Pennsylvania Provost's report , 1900–01, 163–5. On European stations' aquaria, see Jack , “Biological field stations” (ref. 14), i, 387–92; and Kofoid , Biological stations of Europe (ref. 16).

Macfarlane John M. , “Botany Department”, Old Penn weekly review, vi, issue of 4 Jan. 1908, 1.

Princeton University Department of Biology”, n.d. [c. 1916]; “The Biological Laboratories”, n.d. [c. 1916]; Conklin Edwin G. to McLapin Mr. , 6 Dec. 1910; Thompson Henry B. to Conklin , 28 June 1911; all in PUB, Box 1, f. Biological Plans. McClure Charles F. to Conklin , 22, 28 Oct., 7 Nov. 1907; Schroeder A. Sawyer to McClure , 28 Oct. 1907; all in Edwin G. Conklin Papers, Princeton University Special Collections, Princeton, N.J., Box 15, f. McClure. Conklin, “Memorandum of the urgent needs of the Department of Biology”, 9 March 1909, Conklin Papers, Box 43, f. Woodrow Wilson. M. Taylor Pyne to Board of Trustees, 10 June 1907, Princeton University Trustees Papers, Harvey Mudd Library, Princeton, N.J.

Robert A. Harper to Edwin G. Conklin, 5 June 1911. 17 March 1911, both in PUB, Box 1, f. Biological Plans.

Burk C. John , Celebrating a century: The botanic garden of Smith College (Northampton. Mass., 1995). Idem, The gardens and botanical facilities of Smith College: Education, research, and pleasure (Northampton, Mass., 1981). I am grateful to Professor Burk for copies of these pamphlets. John C. Coulter to Harry P. Judson, 6 May 1907, UC-Pres, Box 15, f. 13.

Turner Paul V. , Campus: An American planning tradition (Cambridge, Mass., 1984). Zetzel Susanna S. , “The garden in the machine: The construction of nature in Olmsted's Central Park”, Prospects, xiv (1989), 291–339. Paton George E. Menke William F. , “Design with nature and culture: The Long Meadow, Prospect Park, Brooklyn, New York as exemplar of an urban park compatible with its past”, Journal of garden history, ii (1982), 361–76. Also Stilgoe John R. , Borderland: Origins of the American suburb (New Haven, 1988).

Zeleny Charles , “The need of a vivarium”, 23 Jan. 1911; Zeleny to Ward Henry B. , 14 June 1913; both in CZ, Box 6, f. Vivarium Early Plans. Anon., “The Vivarium”, Alumni quarterly, i (1916), 294–5.

Shelford Victor E. , “Research facilities in connection with the Vivarium in behavior, ecological work, and breeding associated with the same”, 1912; Shelford to Ward Henry B. , 30 June 1914 enclosing “Specification for vivarium from V. E. Shelford”; Ward to White James M. , 22 Aug. 1914; Ward to White , 10 July, 14 Aug. 1914; all in CZ, Box 6, f. Vivarium Early Plans. Shelford Victor E. , Laboratory and field ecology: The responses of animals as indicators of correct working methods (Baltimore, 1929). Croker Robert A. , Pioneer ecologist: The life and work of Victor Ernest Shelford 1877–1968 (Washington, 1991), chaps. 2 and 3.

Victor E. Shelford to Henry B. Ward, 1 July 1914, CZ, Box 6, f. Vivarium Early Plans. Howell William H. to Conklin Edwin G. , 6 Feb. 1911, PUB, Box 1, f. Biological Plans.

Reighard Jacob to Ward Henry B. , 10 June 1914, CZ, Box 6, f. Vivarium Early Plans.

“Princeton University Department of Biology”, n.d. [1916]; “The Biological Laboratories”, n.d. [1916]; both in PUB, Box 1, f. Biological Plans. Edwin G. Conklin to Mr. MacMillan, 6 July 1925; Conklin to Henry B. Thompson, 6 Dec. 1926 (and memorandum); Conklin to Committee on Grounds and Buildings, 30 Nov. 1925; all in PUB, Box 2, f. Grounds and Buildings.

Reighard Jacob to Davenport Charles B. , 24 May 1913, CBD. Davenport, reports in Carnegie Institution year book, iii–xxiii (1904–24). Montgomery Thomas H. Jr. , “The new zoological laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania”, Science, xxxiv (1911), 742–8.

de Varigny Henry C. , “Le transformisme expérimental”. Revue scientifique, xlvii (1891), 769–77, p. 776.

Cockrell T. D. A. , review of books by J. C. Ewart, Science, xiii (1901), 423–4. Davenport Charles B. , Carnegie Institution year book, v (1906), 96–97. Idem, “A summary of progress in experimental evolution”, 5 March 1903, CBD, f. Cold Spring Harbor Beginnings. Francis Galton to Davenport, 16 Oct. 1902, CBD. Lankester E. Ray Poulton E. B. Romanes G. J. , “An Institut Transformiste”, n.d. [c. 1891], Charles B. Davenport Papers, series staff-1, f. Romanes. Meldola Ralph , “The speculative method in entomology”, Nature, liii (1896), 352–6. Ewart J. C. , “Experimental study of variation”, Scientific American supplement, lii (1901), 21592–3, 21608–9.

Whitman Charles O. , “A biological farm”, n.d. [1906–7], 4, CBD, f. Whitman Biological Farm. Whitman , “Biological farm” (ref. 50), 219–20.

Davenport Charles B. , “The biological problems of today — Morphogenesis”, Science, vii (1898), 158–61, p. 161. Davenport , “Biological experiment station for studying evolution”, Carnegie Institution year book, i (1902), 280–1. Davenport to Carnegie Institution, 5 May 1902, CIW, f. Genetics Director. Conklin , “Advances in methods” (ref. 51), 84.

Davenport Charles B. , “A summer of progress in experimental evolution”, 5 March 1903, CBD, f. Cold Spring Harbor Beginnings. Angell James R. to MacLean M. H. , 14 Oct. 1907, in McLean , “Report on the scientific and financial requirements of a proposed Biological Farm for the University of Chicago”, 29 Oct. 1907, UC-Pres, Box 18, f. 7. Yerkes Robert M. , “The Harvard laboratory of animal psychology and the Franklin Field Station”, Journal of animal behavior, iv (1914), 176–84.

Whitman , “Biological farm” (ref. 50), 219, 222–3. An early draft of this paper is part 6 of Whitman, “Report of the trustees of the MBL to the trustees of the Carnegie Institution”, 25 Aug. 1902, CIW, f. Marine Biological Laboratory. Whitman , “A marine biological observatory”, Popular science monthly, xlii (1893), 459–71, pp. 460–1. Lillie, Woods Hole (ref. 16), 47–62.

Charles B. Davenport to Harper William R. , 16 April, 3 Dec. 1903, both in CBD. Davenport memo, 15 April 1903 (Minutes, iv, 246); Grey and Heckman report on biological farm, 19 May 1903 (Minutes, iv, 258); both in University of Chicago Trustees Papers, Regenstein Library, Chicago, Ill. (hereafter: UC-Trus). McLean M. H. , “Report on the scientific and financial requirements of a proposed Biological Farm for the University of Chicago”, 29 Oct. 1907; Whitman Charles O. to Judson Harry P. , 11 July 1907; both in UC-Pres, Box 18, f. 7. Whitman , “A biological farm” (ref. 72). Whitman to Acting President, 14 Jan. 1907; Whitman to Lloyd Morgan, n.d.; both in CBD, f. Whitman Biological Farm.

Whitman to Morgan Lloyd , n.d.; McLean M. H. , “Report”; Davenport to Harper William R. , 16 April 1903; all in CBD. Davenport to Harper, 3 Dec. 1903, UC-Pres, Box 7, f. 1. Whitman et al. to President and Board, 11 May 1906; and to Trustees, 3 Dec. 1906; both in UC-Pres, Box 15, f. 12. [Whitman?] to Martin A. Ryerson, 1 Dec. 1906, UC-Pres, Box 18, f. 7. Whitman to Harper, n.d., UC-Pres, Box 18, f. 6.

Davenport Charles B. , “First report of the Station for Experimental Evolution”, Carnegie Institution year book, iii (1904), 23–32, pp. 24–27.

Davenport Charles B. to Hooper Franklin W. , 21 April 1902; Davenport , “Some of the lines of work of a Station for the Experimental Study of Evolution”, 5 March 1903; both in CBD, f. Cold Spring Harbor Beginnings. Davenport to Carnegie Institution, 15 Feb. 1904, CIW, f. Genetics Director. Davenport to Willet M. Hays, 20 Feb. 1904; to Bradley M. Davis, 20 June 1904; to Raymond Pearl, 19 Feb. 1904; all in CBD. Davenport to Robert S. Woodward, 21 Oct. 1909, 1 Oct. 1912, both in CIW, f. Genetics, Buildings, Quarters. Davenport to Woodward, 23 Aug. 1919, Davenport Papers, series staff-1, f. Woodward. Davenport, annual reports, Carnegie Institution year book, iii–xviii (1904–19).

Hooper Franklin W. to Walcott Charles D. , 24 July 1902, CBD, f. Cold Spring Harbor Beginnings. Davenport, “First report” (ref. 78). Davenport to Robert Yerkes, 3 Jan. 1907, CBD.

Donaldson Henry H. , “Experiment on the feralization of the albino rat”, Carnegie Institution year book, xv (1916), 200–1. Hatai Shikishi to Davenport Charles B. , 6, 9 June 1910; Hitai, report on visit to Goose Island, 1 Aug 1911; correspondence with Henry H. Donaldson 1910–12; all in CBD.

Carnegie Institution year book, ix (1910), 82–86; ibid., x (1911), 84–85. Banta Arthur M. , reports to Charles B. Davenport, 1911–24, all in Davenport Papers, series staff-2.

McLean M. H. to Judson Harry P. , 7 Nov. 1907, UC-Pres, Box 18, f. 7.

Whitman Charles O. to Morgan Lloyd , n.d. [1900–2?], CBD, f. Whitman Biological Farm.

Judson Harry P. to Heckman Wallace , 17 March 1914, in Minutes, iv; Minute, 12 March 1925, in Minutes, xv, 96–97; Minute, 10 Sept. 1931, in Minutes, xxi, 198; all in UC-Trus.

Kohler , Landscapes and labscapes (ref. 3), chap. 3.

Lauff George H. Reichle David , “Experimental ecological reserves”, Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America, lx (1979), 4–11. Mayr Ernst , “Materials for a history of American ornithology”, in Stresemann Erwin , Ornithology from Aristotle to the present (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), 365–96, p. 378.