We offer a new conceptualization and measurement models for constructs at the group-level of analysis in small group research. The conceptualization starts with classical notions of group behavior proposed by Tönnies, Simmel, and Weber and then draws upon plural subject theory by philosophers Gilbert and Tuomela to frame a new perspective applicable to many forms of small group behavior. In the proposed measurement model, a collective property is operationalized as shared interpersonal action that explicitly allows us to control for systematic (method) error and random error. Group members act as key informants of group properties and processes and are treated as methods in a multitrait multimethod setting to validate our models. The models are applied to data of 277 three-person groups to develop and illustrate new procedures for ascertaining variation in measures due to hypothesized construct(s), method error, and random error. Implications and guidelines for small group research are discussed.
AitkinMikeLongfordNicholas T.. 1986. “Statistical Modelling Issues in School Effectiveness Studies.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society149:1–43.
2.
AllenNatalie J.MeyerJohn P.. 1996. “Affective, Continuance, and Normative Commitment to the Organization: An Examination of Construct Validity.” Journal of Vocational Behavior49:252–76.
3.
BagozziRichard P.2000. “On the Concept of Intentional Social Action in Consumer Behavior.” Journal of Consumer Research27:388–96.
4.
BagozziRichard P.2005. “Socializing Marketing.” Marketing: Journal of Research in Management2:101–14.
5.
BagozziR. P.2011. “Measurement and Meaning in Information Systems and Organizational Research: Methodological and Philosophical Foundations.” MIS Quarterly35:261–92.
6.
BagozziRichard P.YiYoujae. 1991. “Multitrait-multimethod Matrices in Consumer Research.” Journal of Consumer Research17:426–39.
BondCharles F.HornElisabeth M.KennyDavid A.. 1997. “A Model for Triadic Relations.” Psychological Methods2:79–94.
9.
BratmanMichael E.1999. Faces of Intention: Selected Essays on Intention and Agency. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
10.
ChanDavid. 1998. “Functional Relations among Constructs in the Same Content Domain at Different Levels of Analysis: A Typology of Composition Models.” Journal of Applied Psychology83:234–46.
11.
ChenFeinianCurranPatrick J.BollenKenneth A.KirbyJamesPaxtonPamela. 2008. “An Empirical Evaluation of the Use of Fixed Cutoff Points in RMSEA Test Statistic in Structural Equation Models.” Sociological Methods & Research36:462–94.
12.
CookWilliam L.1993. “Interdependence and the Interpersonal Sense of Control: A Social Relations Model Analysis.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology64:587–601.
13.
CroonMarcel A.VeldhovenMarc J. van. 2007. “Predicting Group-level Variables from Variables Measured at the Individual Level: A Latent Variable Multilevel Model.” Psychological Methods1:45–57.
14.
DansereauFredYammarinoFrancis J.. 2000. “Within and between Analysis: The Varient Paradigm as an Underlying Approach to Theory Building and Testing.” Pp. 425–66 in Multilevel Theory, Research, and Methods in Organizations: Foundations, Extensions, and New Directions, edited by KleinKatherine J.KozlowskiSteve W. J.. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc.
15.
EidMichaelNussbeckFridtjof W.GeiserChristianColeDavid A.GollwitzerMarioLischetzkeTanja. 2008. “Structural Equation Modelling of Multitrait-multimethod Data: Different Models for Different Types of Methods.” Psychological Methods13:230–53.
16.
GeyskensIngeSteenkampJan B.ScheerLisa K.KumarNirmalya. 1996. “The Effects of Trust and Inter-dependence on Relationship Commitment: A Trans-Atlantic Study.” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 13:303–17.
17.
GilbertMargaret P.1989. On Social Facts. Princeton. NJ: Princeton University Press.
18.
GilbertMargaret P.2000. Sociality and Responsibility: New Essays in Plural Subject Theory. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
19.
GilbertMargaret P.2002. “Acting Together.” Pp. 53–71 in Social Facts and Collective Intentionality, edited by MeggleG.. Frankfurt, Germany: Dr. Hänsel-Hohenhausen.
HeideJan G.MinerAnne S.. 1992. “The Shadow of the Future: Effects of Anticipated Interaction and Frequency of Contact on Buyer-seller Cooperation.” Academy of Management Journal35:265–91.
22.
HendersonJohn C.LeeSoonchui. 1992. “Managing I/S Design Teams: A Control Theories Perspective.” Management Science38:757–77.
23.
HoxJoop. 2002. Multilevel Analysis. Techniques and Applications. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
24.
HuLitzeBentlerPeter M.. 1999. “Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria Versus New Alternatives.” Structural Equation Modelling6:1–55.
25.
IversonGufmund R.1991. Contextual Analysis(Sage University Paper Series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences No. 07–081). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
26.
KennyDavid A.1996. “Models of Nonindependence in Dyadic Research.” Journal of Social and Personal Relationships13:279–94.
27.
KennyDavid A.KaniskanBurcuMcCoachD. Betsy. 2014. “The Performance of RMSEA in Models with Small Degrees of Freedom.” Sociological Methods & Research44:486–507.
28.
KennyDavid A.KashyDeborahCookWilliam A.. 2006. Dyadic Data Analysis. New York: Guilford.
29.
KennyDavid A.MannettiLuciaPierroAntoniaLiviStefanoKashyDeborah A.. 2002. “The Statistical Analysis of Data from Small Groups.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology83:126–37.
30.
KennyDavid A.VoieLawrence La. 1985. “Separating Individual and Group Effects.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology48:339–48.
31.
KennyDavid A.WinquistLynn. 2001. “Consideration of Design, Components, and Unit of Analysis.” Pp. 269–310 in Interpersonal Sensitivity. Theory and Measurement, edited by HallJ. A.BernieriF. J.. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
32.
KleinKatherine J.DansereauFredHallRosalie J.. 1994. “Level Issues in Theory Development, Data Collection and Analysis.” Academy of Management Journal19:195–229.
33.
KumarNirmalyaSternLouis W.AndersonJames C.. 1993. “Conducting Interorganizational Research Using Key Informants.” Academy of Management Journal36:1633–51.
34.
LaingRonald D.PhillipsonHerbertRussell LeeA.. 1966. Interpersonal Perception: A Theory and Method of Research. London, UK: Travistock.
35.
LanceCharles E.NobleCarrie L.ScullenSteven E.. 2002. “A Critique of the Correlated Trait-correlated Method (CTCM) and Correlated Uniqueness (CU) Models for Multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) Data.” Psychological Methods7:228–44.
36.
LüdtkeOliverMarshHerbert W.RobitzschAlexanderTrautweinUlrichAsparouhovTihomirMuthénBengt. 2008. “The Multilevel Latent Covariate Model: A New, More Reliable Approach to Group-level Effects in Contextual Studies.” Psychological Methods13:203–29.
37.
MarshHerbert W.1989. “Confirmatory Factor Analyses of Multitrait-multimethod Data: Many Problems and a Few Solutions.” Applied Psychological Measurement13:335–61.
38.
MarshHerbert W.BaileyMichael. 1991. “Confirmatory Factor Analyses of Multitrait-multimethod Data: A Comparison of the Behavior of Alternative Models.” Applied Psychological Measurement15:47–70.
39.
MarshHebert W.HauKit-TaiWenZhongli. 2004. “In Search of Golden Rules: Comment on Hypothesis-testing Approaches to Setting Cutoff Values for Fit Indexes and Dangers in Overgeneralizing Hu und Bentler’s 1999 Findings.” Structural Equation Modeling11:320–41.
40.
MeadeAdam W.EbyLillian T.. 2007. “Using Indices of Group Agreement in Multilevel Construct Validation.” Organizational Research Methods10:75–96.
41.
MeggleGeorg. 2002. Social Facts and Collective Intentionality. Frankfurt, Germany: Dr. Hänsel-Hohenhausen.
42.
MorganRobert M.HuntShelby D.. 1994. “The Commitment-trust Theory of relationship Marketing.” Journal of Marketing58:20–38.
43.
MorgesonFrederick P.HofmannDavid A.. 1999. “The Structure and Function of Collective Constructs: Implications for Multilevel Research and Theory Development.” Academy of Management Review19:249–65.
44.
MuthénLinda K.MuthénBengt O.. 2007. Mplus User’s Guide. 4th ed. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén and Muthén.
45.
NelsonKay M.CoopriderJay G.. 1996. “The Contribution of Shared Knowledge to IS Group Performance.” MIS Quarterly20:409–32.
46.
O’BrienRobert M.1990. “Estimating the Reliability of Aggregate-level Variables Based on Individual-level Characteristics.” Sociological Methods and Research18:473–504.
47.
PohlSteffiSteyerRolfKrausKatrin. 2008. “Modeling Method Effects as Individual Causal Effects.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A171:41–63.
48.
PutkaDan J.LanceCharles E.LeHuyMcCloyRodney A.. 2011. “A Cautionary Note on Modeling Multitrait-multirater Data Arising from Ill-structured Measurement Designs.” Organizational Research Methods14:503–29.
49.
SearleJohn R.1990. “Collective Intentions and Actions.” Pp. 401–15 in Intentions in Communications, edited by CohenP.. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
50.
SearleJohn R.1995. The Construction of Social Reality. New York: Free Press.
51.
SeidlerJohn. 1974. “On Using Key Informants: A Technique for Collecting Quantitative Data and Controlling for Measurement Error in Organization Analysis.” American Sociological Review39:816–31.
52.
SimmelGeorg. [1908] 1971. “How Is Society Possible?” Pp. 6–22 in On Individuality and Social Forms, edited by LevineD. N.. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
53.
SnijdersTom A. B.BoskerRoel J.. 1999. Multilevel Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Multilevel Modeling. London, UK: Sage.
54.
TönniesFerdinand. 1963. Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft. Grundbegriffe der reinen Soziologie. Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
55.
TuomelaRaimo. 1995. The Importance of us: A Philosophical Study of Basic Social Notions. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
56.
TuomelaRaimo. 2002. The Philosophy of Social Practices: A Collective Acceptance View. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
57.
WarnerRebecca M.KennyDavid A.StotoMichael. 1979. “New Round-Robin Analysis of Variance for Social Interaction Data.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology37:1742–57.
58.
WathneKenneth H.GiongHaroldHeideJan B.. 2001. “Choice of Supplier in Embedded Markets: Relationship and Marketing Program Effects.” Journal of Marketing65:54–66.
59.
WeberMax. 1978. Economy and Society. Berkeley: University of California Press.
YammarinoFrancis J.DansereauFred. 2009. “Overview: Multi-level Issues in Leadership and Organizational Behavior.” Pp. 1–9 in Multi-Level Issues in Organizational Behavior and Leadership, edited by YammarinoF.DansereauF.. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S1475-9144(2009)0000008018
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
