Tourism social entrepreneurs are embedded in ecosystems that they use to acquire resources. These relational processes are scarcely explored in the literature. Employing in-depth interviews and an informed grounded theory approach, this study offers a holistic conceptual framework in which it unravels the process of network resource mobilisation in these ecosystems in terms of the type of social capital that characterises them (bonding and bridging). Bridging ecosystems serves to obtain tangible and explicit intangible resources, while Bonding ecosystems serve to obtain tacit intangible resources. Furthermore, there are significant differences in the three phases of network resource mobilisation: 1) access to networks, 2) types of alliances and gaps in mobilisation, and 3) generation of social capital. This study systematises relational patterns of the complex network of alliances within entrepreneurial ecosystems for mobilising resources. Therefore, these results can help entrepreneurs adapt their relational strategies according to the type of resource they need. Also available in Spanish. See supplemental material for details.
AquinoR. S.BolukK. A. (2025). Social entrepreneurship in tourism: A framework-based scoping review and research agenda. Tourism Management Perspectives, 57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2025.101351
4.
BachingerM.KoflerI.PechlanerH. (2020). Sustainable instead of high-growth? Entrepreneurial ecosystems in tourism. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 44, 238–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.07.001
5.
BaggioR.CooperC. (2010). Knowledge transfer in a tourism destination: The effects of a network structure. Service Industries Journal, 30(10), 1757–1771. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642060903580649
6.
BichlerB. F.KallmuenzerA.PetersM. (2020). Entrepreneurial ecosystems in hospitality: The relevance of entrepreneurs’ quality of life. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 44, 152–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.06.009
7.
BounckenR. B.KrausS. (2022). Entrepreneurial ecosystems in an interconnected world: Emergence, governance and digitalization. Review of Managerial Science, 16(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-021-00444-1
8.
BourdieuP. (1986). The Forms of Capital. In RichardsonJ. G. (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 58–241). Greenwood Press.
9.
BrushC.EdelmanL. F.ManolovaT.WelterF. (2019). A gendered look at entrepreneurship ecosystems. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 393–408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9992-9
10.
BryantA. (2012). The grounded theory method. En TrainorA.GraueE. (Eds.), Reviewing qualitative research in the social sciences (pp. 108–124). Routledge.
11.
BurtR. S. (1995). Structural holes: The social structure of competition. Harvard University Press.
12.
ÇakmakE.LieR.SelwynT. (2019). Informal tourism entrepreneurs’ capital usage and conversion. Current Issues in Tourism, 22(18), 2250–2265. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2018.1448763
13.
CasanuevaC.GallegoA.RevillaM. A. (2015). Access and mobilization of network resources and competitive advantage in hotels: A conceptual framework. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 27(6), 1279–1300. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-03-2013-0144
14.
CharmazC. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. Sage Publications.
15.
ChaudharyS.KaurP.AlofaysanH.HalberstadtJ.DhirA. (2023). Connecting the dots? Entrepreneurial ecosystems and sustainable entrepreneurship as pathways to sustainability. Business Strategy and the Environment, 32(8), 5935–5951. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.3466
16.
ClaridgeT. (2018). Explanation of the different levels of social capital: Individual or collective?Social Capital Research, 1–7.
17.
ColemanJ. S. (1994). Foundations of social theory. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
CunhaC.KastenholzE.CarneiroM. J. (2020). Entrepreneurs in rural tourism: Do lifestyle motivations contribute to management practices that enhance sustainable entrepreneurial ecosystems?Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 44, 215–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.06.007
20.
Czernek-MarszałekK. (2019). Applying mixed methods in social network research – The case of cooperation in a Polish tourist destination. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management, 11, 40–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2018.10.004
21.
de BruinA.RoyM. J.GrantS.LewisK. V. (2023). Advancing a contextualized, community-centric understanding of social entrepreneurial ecosystems. Business and Society, 62(5), 1069–1102. https://doi.org/10.1177/00076503221121820
22.
EichelbergerS.PetersM.PikkemaatB.ChanC. S. (2020). Entrepreneurial ecosystems in smart cities for tourism development: From stakeholder perceptions to regional tourism policy implications. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 45, 319–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.06.011
23.
FreundD.Ramírez GarcíaI.BolukK. A.Canut-CascallóM.López-PlanasM. (2024). Exploring the gendered tourism entrepreneurial ecosystem in Barcelona and responses required: A feminist ethic of care. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 32(3), 637–655. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2023.2207780
24.
GarzónI.CasanuevaC.ArroyoF. O. Z. C.VegaE. C. (2025). Network resource mobilization in community-based tourism social entrepreneurship. Journal of Travel Research, 65(3), 753–768. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875241313209
25.
GrantR. M. (1991). The resource-based theory of competitive advantage: Implications for strategy formulation. California Management Review, 33(3), 114-135. https://doi.org/10.2307/41166664
26.
GubaE. G.LincolnY. S. (1989). Fourth generation evaluation. SAGE.
27.
GubaE. G.LincolnY. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In DenzinN. K.LincolnY. S. (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105–117). Sage Publications.
28.
GulatiR.LavieD.MadhavanR. (2011). How do networks matter? The performance effects of interorganizational networks. Research in Organizational Behavior, 31, 207–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2011.09.005
29.
GuptaP.ChauhanS.PaulJ.JaiswalM. P. (2020). Social entrepreneurship research: A review and future research agenda. Journal of Business Research, 113, 209–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.03.032
30.
HugginsR.JohnstonA.ThompsonP. (2012). Network capital, social capital and knowledge flow: How the nature of inter-organizational networks impacts on innovation. Industry and Innovation, 19(3), 203–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/13662716.2012.669615
31.
IslamS. M. (2020). Unintended consequences of scaling social impact through ecosystem growth strategy in social enterprise and social entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 13, e00159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbvi.2020.e00159
32.
JørgensenM. T.HansenA. V.SørensenF.FuglsangL.SundboJ.JensenJ. F. (2021). Collective tourism social entrepreneurship: A means for community mobilization and social transformation. Annals of Tourism Research, 88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2021.103171
KlineC.DuffyL.ClarkD. (2020). Fostering tourism and entrepreneurship in fringe communities: Unpacking stakeholder perceptions towards entrepreneurial climate. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 20(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/1467358418781443
35.
KlineC.HaoH.AldermanD.KleckleyJ. W.GrayS. (2014). A spatial analysis of tourism, entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial ecosystem in North Carolina, USA. Tourism Planning & Development, 11(3), 305–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/21568316.2014.890127
36.
KnollenbergW.McGeheeN. G.PerdueR. R.AndereckK. L. (2020). We’re all in this together: Understanding how tourism advocates build relationships across the tourism industry. Journal of Travel Research, 60 (2), 235–250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287520906216
37.
KuebartA.SantiniE.ForrerV. (2025). No islands of entrepreneurship—Mapping the trans-local dimension of entrepreneurial ecosystems through networks of accelerator participation. Small Business Economics, 65(3), 1427–1442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-025-01026-1
38.
LeeC.HallakR. (2020). Investigating the effects of offline and online social capital on tourism SME performance: A mixed-methods study of New Zealand entrepreneurs. Tourism Management, 80, 104128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104128
39.
LiY.WangX. (2025). Social capital, resource bricolage and micro-innovation strategies for rural tourism small enterprises: A longitudinal case study. Tourism Management Perspectives, 58, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2025.101395.
40.
LinN. (2001). Social capital: A theory of social structure and action. Cambridge University Press.
41.
MattssonK. T.CasselS. H. (2020). Immigrant entrepreneurs and potentials for path creating tourism development in rural Sweden. Tourism Planning & Development, 17(4), 384–403. https://doi.org/10.1080/21568316.2019.1607543
42.
MilwoodP. A.MaxwellA. (2020). A boundary objects view of entrepreneurial ecosystems in tourism. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 44, 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.06.008
43.
MottiarZ.BolukK.KlineC. (2018). The roles of social entrepreneurs in rural destination development. Annals of Tourism Research, 68, 77–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2017.12.001
44.
NeumeyerX.SantosS. C. (2018). Sustainable business models, venture typologies, and entrepreneurial ecosystems: A social network perspective. Journal of Cleaner Production, 172, 4565–4579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.08.216
45.
ObstfeldD.BorgattiS. P.DavisJ. (2014). Brokerage as a process: Decoupling third party action from social network structure. Contemporary Perspectives on Organizational Social Networks, 40, 135–159. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0733-558X(2014)0000040007
46.
PutnamR. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon & Schuster.
47.
RaisiH.BaggioR.Barratt-PughL.WillsonG. (2020). A network perspective of knowledge transfer in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2019.102817
48.
ScheidgenK.BrattströmA. (2023). Berlin is hotter than Silicon Valley! How networking temperature shapes entrepreneurs’ networking across social contexts. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 47(6), 2233–2262. https://doi.org/10.1177/10422587221134787
49.
Sharifi-TehraniM.SeyfiS.Vo-ThanhT.ZamanM. (2024). Women’s network resource acquisition in informal rural entrepreneurship: A developed view of opportunity versus necessity dichotomy. Journal of Travel Research, 65(2), 429–448. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875241300974
50.
SheldonP. J.PollockA.DanieleR. (2017). Social entrepreneurship and tourism: Setting the stage. In Tourism on the verge: Vol. Part F1057 (pp. 1–18). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46518-0_1
51.
SigalaM. (2016). Learning with the market: A market approach and framework for developing social entrepreneurship in tourism and hospitality. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 28(6), 1245–1286. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-06-2014-0285
52.
SlaneyC.LeeS. J.BusserJ. (2024). Future space tourists’ motivations, constraints, and negotiation strategies: A grounded theory approach, 64(5), 1045–1063. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875241234385
53.
SoedirgoJ.GlasA. (2020). Toward active reflexivity: Positionality and practice in the production of knowledge. Political Science & Politics, 53(3), 527–531. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096519002233
54.
SoulardJ.RussellZ. (2025). Visitors’ cognitive vaccines: Self-reflection on dissonant narratives after heritage tourism experiences. Annals of Tourism Research, 112, 103935. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2025.103935
55.
SoulardJ.ParkJ.ZouS. (2024). Pride in transformation: A rural tourism stakeholder view. Journal of Travel Research, 63(1), 80–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875221143487
56.
SpigelB. (2017). The relational organization of entrepreneurial ecosystems. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 41(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/etap.12167
TheodorakiC.MesseghemK.RiceM. P. (2018). A social capital approach to the development of sustainable entrepreneurial ecosystems: An explorative study. Small Business Economics, 51(1), 153–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-017-9924-0
59.
Thirumalesh MadanaguliA.KaurP.BrescianiS.DhirA. (2021). Entrepreneurship in rural hospitality and tourism: A systematic literature review of past achievements and future promises. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 33(8), 2521–2558. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-09-2020-1121
ToeplerF.VelamuriV. (2025). Legitimacy building in entrepreneurial ecosystems—A process perspective for sustainable entrepreneurs. Managerial and Decision Economics, 46(5), 3087–3105. https://doi.org/10.1002/mde.4518
62.
VongvisitsinT. B.TungV. W. S. (2025). Technology start-ups in tourism and hospitality: A networked social capital theory perspective from early-stage start-up founders. Tourism Management,106, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2024.104996.
63.
VongvisitsinT. B.HuangW. J.KingB. (2024). Urban community-based tourism development: A networked social capital model. Annals of Tourism Research, 106, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2024.103759
64.
WangM.RasoolimaneshS. M.KunasekaranP. (2022). A review of social entrepreneurship research in tourism: Knowledge map, operational experiences, and roadmaps. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 30(8), 1777–1798. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2021.2007255
65.
WangX.HuangY.HuangK. (2025). How does social entrepreneurship achieve sustainable development goals in rural tourism destinations? The role of legitimacy and social capital. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 33(7), 1262–1280. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2024.2309546
66.
WeidenfeldA.HallC. M.BaggioR. (2025). Knowledge networks of destination regions: A systemic cross-sectoral and regional perspective. Journal of Travel Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875251388338
67.
ZhangY.XuH.YangH. (2024). An integrated path framework of tourism and hospitality social entrepreneurship: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 36(3), 661–690. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-09-2022-1057
68.
ZhouL.ChanE.SongH. (2017). Social capital and entrepreneurial mobility in early-stage tourism development: A case from rural China. Tourism Management, 63, 338–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.06.027
