Traveling with companions is commonplace, yet the effect of travel companions on tourists’ well-being remains disputed, warranting further investigation. Drawing on social facilitation theory, this study investigates the interaction effect of self-construal (independent vs. interdependent) and companion presence (alone vs. with a companion) on tourists’ positive affect and well-being. Evidence from four studies, using various self-construal manipulations and tourism activities, reveals that tourists with interdependent self-construal derive higher hedonia when traveling with a companion, whereas tourists with independent self-construal gain higher eudaimonia when traveling alone. Additionally, this interaction effect is mediated by two distinct dimensions of positive affect: pleasant affect (a low-arousal state) and positive involvement (a high-arousal state), respectively. These findings advance the understanding of how self-construal and companion presence influence hedonia and eudaimonia. Tourism managers can utilize these findings to tailor travel products, messaging strategies, and service experiences according to whether tourists travel alone or with a companion.
AhmadS. N. (2016). The role of social facilitation theory on consumer decision making: A conceptual framework. American Journal of Management, 16(2), 80–89.
2.
Al-okailyN. S.AlzbounN.AlrawadiehZ.SlehatM. (2023). The impact of eudaimonic well-being on experience and loyalty: A tourism context. Journal of Services Marketing, 37(2), 216–231. https://doi.org/10.1108/jsm-08-2021-0282
3.
BagheriF.GuerreiroM.PintoP.GhaderiZ. (2024). From tourist experience to satisfaction and loyalty: Exploring the role of a sense of well-being. Journal of Travel Research, 63(8), 1989–2004. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875231201509
4.
BergerS. M.CarliL. C.Garc?aR.BradyJ. J. (1982). Audience effects in anticipatory learning: A comparison of drive and practice-inhibition analyses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(3), 478–486. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.42.3.478
5.
BernritterS. F.LoermansA. C.VerleghP. W. J.SmitE. G. (2017). ‘We’ are more likely to endorse than ‘I’: The effects of self-construal and brand symbolism on consumers’ online brand endorsements. International Journal of Advertising, 36(1), 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2016.1186950
6.
BianchiC. (2016). Solo holiday travellers: Motivators and drivers of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. International Journal of Tourism Research, 18(2), 197–208. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2049
7.
BrewerM. B.GardnerW. (1996). Who is this “We”? Levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(1), 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.71.1.83
8.
CasalóL. V.FlaviánC.Ibáñez-SánchezS. (2021). Be creative, my friend! Engaging users on Instagram by promoting positive emotions. Journal of Business Research, 130, 416–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.02.014
9.
ChenC.LüK.ZhangD. (2024). The impact of self-construal on consumers’ intention to write reviews: A trait activation perspective. Journal of Business Research, 178, 114681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2024.114681
10.
ChenC.TengZ.LuC.HossainM. A.FangY. (2021). Rethinking leisure tourism: From the perspective of tourist touch points and perceived well-being. Sage Open, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211059180
FaulF.ErdfelderE.BuchnerA.LangA.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
13.
FilepS.LaingJ. (2019). Trends and directions in tourism and positive psychology. Journal of Travel Research, 58(3), 343–354. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287518759227
14.
FredricksonB. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218
15.
FredricksonB. L. (2004). The broaden–and–build theory of positive emotions. The Royal Society, 359(1449), 1367–1377. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.1512
16.
GedechoE. K.KimS.SenbetoD. L. (2024). Emotional and hedonic well-being experiences of diaspora festival visitors: A contemporary migrants’ perspective. Journal of Travel Research, 63(7), 1797–1816. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875231195738
17.
GiffordR.NilssonA. (2014). Personal and social factors that influence pro-environmental concern and behaviour: A review. International Journal of Psychology, 49(3), 141–157. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12034
18.
GiuntoliL.CondiniF.CeccariniF.HutaV.VidottoG. (2021). The different roles of hedonic and eudaimonic motives for activities in predicting functioning and well-being experiences. Journal of Happiness Studies, 22, 1657–1671. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-020-00290-0
19.
GuanB.LiX.LuoZ.LiuP. (2025). Can (A)I arouse you? The impact of AI services on consumer pro-environmental behavior. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 49(5), 932–945. https://doi.org/10.1177/10963480241256602
20.
HamidS.AliR.AzharM.KhanS. (2021). Solo travel and well-being amongst women: An exploratory study. Indonesian Journal of Tourism and Leisure, 2(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.36256/ijtl.v2i1.125
21.
HatanoK.KawamotoT.HiharaS.SugimuraK.IkedaM.TanakaS.NakaharaJ. (2024). Relationship between personality traits and subjective well-being in emerging adulthood: Moderating role of independent and interdependent self-construal. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 53(5), 1155–1170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01918-z
22.
HayesA. F. (Ed.). (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
23.
HosseiniS.MaciasR. C.GarciaF. A. (2022). The exploration of Iranian solo female travellers’ experiences. International Journal of Tourism Research, 24(2), 256–269. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2498
HuangX.WangP.WuL. (2024). Well-being through transformation: An integrative framework of transformative tourism experiences and hedonic versus eudaimonic well-being. Journal of Travel Research, 63(4), 974–994. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875231171670
26.
HuangY.-C.ChengJ.-S.ChangL. L. (2020). Understanding leisure trip experience and subjective well-being: An illustration of creative travel experience. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 15, 1161–1182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-019-09727-y
27.
HutaV.RyanR. M. (2010). Pursuing pleasure or virtue: The differential and overlapping well-being benefits of hedonic and eudaimonic motives. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11, 735–762. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-009-9171-4
28.
HutaV.WatermanA. S. (2014). Eudaimonia and its distinction from hedonia: Developing a classification and terminology for understanding conceptual and operational definitions. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15, 1425–1456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9485-0
29.
JeonE.HanY.NamM. (2020). How you see yourself influences your color preference: Effects of self-construal on evaluations of color combinations. Psychology and Marketing, 37(7), 980–994. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21348
30.
KafetsiosK. G. (2019). Interdependent self-construal moderates relationships between positive emotion and quality in social interactions: A case of person to culture fit. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 914. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00914
31.
KaragözD.RamkissoonH. (2024). Loneliness, travel nostalgia, subjective well-being and prevention regulatory focus: A moderated mediation model analysis. Current Issues in Tourism, 27(2), 217–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2023.2175201
32.
KimJ.-E.JohnsonK. K. (2014). Shame or pride? The moderating role of self-construal on moral judgments concerning fashion counterfeits. European Journal of Marketing, 48(7/8), 1431–1450. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-02-2013-0110
33.
KimY. (2024). Exploring the interplay of psychological need satisfaction, well-being, and behavioral intentions in tourism: A self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Travel Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875241283404
34.
KingL. A.HicksJ. A.KrullJ. L.Del GaisoA. K. (2006). Positive affect and the experience of meaning in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(1), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.179
35.
KleheU.-C.AndersonN.HoefnagelsE. A. (2007). Social facilitation and inhibition during maximum versus typical performance situations. Human Performance, 20(3), 223–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959280701333040
36.
KnoblochU.RobertsonK.AitkenR. (2017). Experience, emotion, and eudaimonia: A consideration of tourist experiences and well-being. Journal of Travel Research, 56(5), 651–662. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287516650937
KouY.PowpakaS. (2021). Pseudo-ownership advertising appeal creates brand psychological ownership: The role of self-construal and customer type. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 30(2), 215–230. https://doi.org/10.1108/jpbm-08-2019-2527
39.
KunzmannU.StangeA.JordanJ. (2005). Positive affectivity and lifestyle in adulthood: Do you do what you feel?Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(4), 574–588. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271586
40.
LeeK.-H.HyunS. S. (2015). A model of behavioral intentions to follow online travel advice based on social and emotional loneliness scales in the context of online travel communities: The moderating role of emotional expressivity. Tourism Management, 48, 426–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.12.012
LiC.YangT.LiuH.LiX. (2025). A para-social perspective: The influence of idol worship on fans’ tourism decision-making. Journal of Travel Research, 64(1), 189–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875231207860
43.
LinY.KerstetterD.NawijnJ.MitasO. (2014). Changes in emotions and their interactions with personality in a vacation context. Tourism Management, 40, 416–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.07.013
44.
LiS.WaltersG.PackerJ.ScottN. (2018). A comparative analysis of self-report and psychophysiological measures of emotion in the context of tourism advertising. Journal of Travel Research, 57(8), 1078–1092. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287517733555
45.
LiuB.MoyleB.KraljA.VadaS.ChangL.LuS. E. (2025). Rethinking travel companionship: An alternative conceptual model and future research agenda. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 49(4), 842–859. https://doi.org/10.1177/10963480241258084
MaJ.LiF. S. (2023). How does self-construal shape tourists' image perceptions of paradox destinations? The mediating roles of cognitive flexibility and destination involvement. Tourism Management, 95, 104664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2022.104664
Manner-BaldeonF.LinG.LiM. (2024). Dyadic friendship travel: The role of personal and friendship characteristics on conflict management styles. Journal of Travel Research, 63(5), 1219–1238. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875231184226
50.
MarkusH. R.KitayamaS. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224–253. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295x.98.2.224
51.
McCabeS.JohnsonS. (2013). The happiness factor in tourism: Subjective well-being and social tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 41, 42–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.12.001
ParkS.KimC.ParkJ. (2023). How power distance belief, self-construal, and relationship norms impact conspicuous consumption. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 75, 103518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2023.103518
54.
PaulU. K.BaltesB. (2003). Wisdom-related knowledge: Affective, motivational, and interpersonal correlates. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(9), 1104–1119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203254506
55.
PlataniaJ.MoranG. P. (2001). Social facilitation as a function of the mere presence of others. Journal of Social Psychology, 141(2), 190–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540109600546
RyanR. M.DeciE. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141
59.
RyuG.KimB.ParkK. (2023). Anti-counterfeiting advertisements for luxury brands in the post pandemic era: Roles of message type, visual presentation mode, and self-construal. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 73, 103354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2023.103354
60.
SingelisT. M. (1994). The measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(5), 580–591. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167294205014
SuL.ChengJ.HuangY. (2021). How do group size and group familiarity influence tourist satisfaction? The mediating role of perceived value. Journal of Travel Research, 60(8), 1821–1840. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287520966384
63.
SuL.ChengJ.SwansonS. (2022). The companion effect on adventure tourists’ satisfaction and subjective well-being: The moderating role of gender. Tourism Review, 77(3), 897–912. https://doi.org/10.1108/tr-02-2021-0063
64.
SuL.ChengJ.SwansonS. R. (2020). The impact of tourism activity type on emotion and storytelling: The moderating roles of travel companion presence and relative ability. Tourism Management, 81, 104138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104138
65.
SuL.GongL.HuangY. (2025). Humorous or serious? The interaction effect of language style and tourism activity type on tourist well-being. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 33(3), 520–547. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2024.2354883
66.
SuL.TangB.NawijnJ. (2020). Eudaimonic and hedonic well-being pattern changes: Intensity and activity. Annals of Tourism Research, 84, 103008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.103008
67.
SuL.TangB.NawijnJ. (2021). How tourism activity shapes travel experience sharing: Tourist well-being and social context. Annals of Tourism Research, 91, 103316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2021.103316
68.
SuL.YeC.HuangY. (2024). Does destination nostalgic advertising enhance tourists’ intentions to visit? The moderating role of destination type. Tourism Management, 100, 104810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2023.104810
69.
TangB.YangX.LuoZ. (2025). Savoring matters: The impact of tourist sharing on well-being. Journal of Travel Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875241307607
70.
TrafimowD.TriandisH. C.GotoS. G. (1991). Some tests of the distinction between the private self and the collective self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(5), 649–655. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.5.649
71.
TugadeM. M.FredricksonB. L. (2004). Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce back from negative emotional experiences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(2), 320–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.320
VadaS.PrenticeC.FilepS.KingB. (2022). The influence of travel companionships on memorable tourism experiences, well-being, and behavioural intentions. International Journal of Tourism Research, 24(5), 714–724. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2533
74.
VadaS.PrenticeC.HsiaoA. (2019). The influence of tourism experience and well-being on place attachment. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 47, 322–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2018.12.007
75.
VadaS.PrenticeC.ScottN.HsiaoA. (2020). Positive psychology and tourist well-being: A systematic literature review. Tourism Management Perspectives, 33, 100631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2019.100631
76.
Van CappellenP.Toth-GauthierM.SaroglouV.FredricksonB. L. (2016). Religion and well-being: The mediating role of positive emotions. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17, 485–505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9605-5
77.
WangL.HouY.ChenZ. (2021). Are rich and diverse emotions beneficial? The impact of emodiversity on tourists’ experiences. Journal of Travel Research, 60(5), 1085–1103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287520919521
WangY.-C.LiuC.-R.HuangW.-S.ChenS.-P. (2020). Destination fascination and destination loyalty: Subjective well-being and destination attachment as mediators. Journal of Travel Research, 59(3), 496–511. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287519839777
80.
WatsonD.WieseD.VaidyaJ.TellegenA. (1999). The two general activation systems of affect: Structural findings, evolutionary considerations, and psychobiological evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(5), 820–838. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.76.5.820
81.
WeissR. F.MillerF. G. (1971). The drive theory of social facilitation. Psychological Review, 78(1), 44–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030386
82.
WinterichK. P.BaroneM. J. (2011). Warm glow or cold, hard cash? Social identity effects on consumer choice for donation versus discount promotions. Journal of Marketing Research, 48(5), 855–868. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkr.48.5.855
83.
XuZ.ChengJ.TongY.LiJ.YeM. (2025). Exploring the unknown together: Companionship traveling increases preference for mystery offerings. Journal of Travel Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875251318316
84.
YangE. C. L. (2021). What motivates and hinders people from travelling alone? A study of solo and non-solo travellers. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(17), 2458–2471. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1839025
85.
YangE. C. L.Khoo-LattimoreC.ArcodiaC. (2018). Power and empowerment: How Asian solo female travellers perceive and negotiate risks. Tourism Management, 68, 32–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.02.017
ZajoncR. B. (1965). Social Facilitation: A solution is suggested for an old unresolved social psychological problem. Science, 149(3681), 269–274. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.149.3681.269
89.
ZhaoX.CaiF.YangZ. (2023). Are people less generous after a family member gives to charity? The interaction of self-construal and relationship type. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 40(2), 398–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2022.11.003
90.
ZhuangX.WangY. (2024). Social support and travel: Enhancing relationships, communication, and understanding for travel companions. International Journal of Tourism Research, 26(4), e2712. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2712
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
