The Impact of Virtual Reality and Intelligent Virtual Environments on the Tourist Experience: The Moderating Effect of Cognitive Style

Abstract

Within the Experience Economy framework, this study analyzes how smart technologies impact the tourist experience of a pre-stay virtual tour and how the individual’s cognitive style moderates this relationship. A quasi-experimental design entails a single treatment variable—technology-type—with two levels: (1) virtual tour with virtual reality (VR) and (2) virtual tour with intelligent virtual environment (IVE), using a static virtual tour (featuring neither VR nor AI) as a control group. The results show that (a) the virtual tour with VR or IVE exerts a positive and significant effect on the pre-stay tourist experience; (b) the individual’s verbal–visual cognitive style exerts a positive and significant impact on the experience; and (c) the effect of technology-type on the tourist experience is moderated by the individual’s cognitive style in the case of the virtual tour with VR. However, no such moderating effect occurs in the virtual tour with the IVE.

Keywords

virtual reality intelligent virtual environment cognitive style tourist experience experience economy

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Allport

G. W.

(1937). Personality: A psychological interpretation. Holt.

Alsobhi

A. Y.

Alyoubi

K. H.

(2019). Adaptation algorithms for selecting personalised learning experience based on learning style and dyslexia type. Data Technologies and Applications, 53(2), 189–200. https://doi.org/10.1108/DTA-10-2018-0092

Atzeni

Del Chiappa

Mei Pung

(2022). Enhancing visit intention in heritage tourism: The role of object-based and existential authenticity in non-immersive virtual reality heritage experiences. International Journal of Tourism Research, 24(2), 240–255. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2497

Ausburn

L. J.

Ausburn

F. B.

(1978). Cognitive styles: Some information and implications for instructional design. Educational Communication & Technology, 26(4), 337–354. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02766370

Bae

Koo

D. M.

(2018). Lemons problem in collaborative consumption platforms: Different decision heuristics chosen by consumers with different cognitive styles. Internet Research, 28(3), 746–766. https://doi.org/10.1108/IntR-08-2017-0332

Bagozzi

R. P.

(1994). Structural equation models in marketing research: Basic principles. Principles of Marketing Research, 3(1), 7–385.

Beck

Rainoldi

Egger

(2019). Virtual reality in tourism: A state-of-the-art review. Tourism Review, 74(3), 586–612. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-03-2017-0049

Bettencourt

Pine

B. J.

Gilmore

J. H.

Norton

D. W.

(2022). The “new you” business: How to compete on personal transformations. Harvard Business Review, 100(1), 70. https://hbr.org/2022/01/the-new-you-business

Bogicevic

Seo

Kandampully

J. A.

Liu

S. Q.

Rudd

N. A.

(2019). Virtual reality presence as a preamble of tourism experience: The role of mental imagery. Tourism Management, 74, 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2019.02.009

10.

Boley

B. B.

Jordan

E. J.

Kline

Knollenberg

(2018). Social return and intent to travel. Tourism Management, 64, 119–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.08.008

11.

Bowen

(2022). Contemporary tourist behaviour: Yourself and others as tourists. Cabi.

12.

Buhalis

Law

(2008). Progress in information technology and tourism management: 20 Years on and 10 years after the Internet—the state of eTourism research. Tourism Management, 29(4), 609–623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2008.01.005

13.

Cain

L. N.

Thomas

J. H.

Alonso Jr

. (2019). From sci-fi to sci-fact: The state of robotics and AI in the hospitality industry. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, 10(4), 624–650. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTT-07-2018-0066

14.

Carrozzino

Bergamasco

(2010). Beyond virtual museums: Experiencing immersive virtual reality in real museums. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 11(4), 452–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2010.04.001

15.

Castellacci

Tveito

(2016). The effects of ICTs on well-being: A survey and a theoretical framework. Centre for Technology, Innovation and Culture, University of Oslo.

16.

Castellacci

Tveito

(2018). Internet use and well-being: A survey and a theoretical framework. Research Policy, 47(1), 308–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2017.11.007

17.

Cautela

J. R.

McCullough

(1978). Covert conditioning: A learning-theory perspective on imagery. In Singer

J. L.

Pope

K. S.

(Eds.), The power of human imagination (pp. 227–254). Springer.

18.

Chang

(2018). Experience economy in the hospitality and tourism context. Tourism Management Perspectives, 27, 83–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2018.05.001

19.

Chassignol

Khoroshavin

Klimova

Bilyatdinova

(2018). Artificial Intelligence trends in education: a narrative overview. Procedia Computer Science, 136, 16–24.

20.

Chen

C. M.

Sun

Y. C.

(2012). Assessing the effects of different multimedia materials on emotions and learning performance for visual and verbal style learners. Computers & Education, 59(4), 1273–1285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.05.006

21.

Choi

Hickerson

Lee

(2018). Investigation of the technology effects of online travel media on virtual travel experience and behavioral intention. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 35(3), 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2017.1340224

22.

Choi

Kim

(2021). Exploring the influence of culture on tourist experiences with robots in service delivery environment. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(5), 717–733. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1735318

23.

Chon

K. K. S.

Hao

(2023). Technological evolution in tourism: A Horizon 2050 perspective. Tourism Review, 80, 313–325. https://doi.org/10.1108/tr-10-2023-0753

24.

Cho

Y. H.

Wang

Fesenmaier

D. R.

(2002). Searching for experiences: The web-based virtual tour in tourism marketing. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 12(4), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1300/J073v12n04_01

25.

Christou

Hadjielias

Simillidou

Kvasova

(2023). The use of intelligent automation as a form of digital transformation in tourism: Towards a hybrid experiential offering. Journal of Business Research, 155, 113415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.113415

26.

Cinnamon

Jahiu

(2023). 360-degree video for virtual place-based research: A review and research agenda. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 106, 102044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2023.102044

27.

Consejería de Turismo Cultura y Deporte. (2024). Latest tourist data in Andalusia – june 2024. https://smartdata.andalucia.org/ultimos-datos-turisticos/ [Spanish].

28.

Cutmore

T. R. H.

Hine

T. J.

Maberly

K. J.

Langford

N. M.

Hawgood

(2000). Cognitive and gender factors influencing navigation in a virtual environment. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 53(2), 223–249. https://doi.org/10.1006/ijhc.2000.0389

29.

Dai

Wang

Kirillova

(2022). Travel inspiration in tourist decision making. Tourism Management, 90, 104484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104484

30.

Deriu

Bachis

Massa

(2021, September). Improving the user engagement in a fully immersive experience by the means of a conversational non-playable character used as a tourist guide [Conference session]. 2021 IoT Vertical and Topical Summit for Tourism.

31.

Dharani

Jyostna

J. V. S. L.

Sucharitha

Likitha

Manne

(2020, May). Interactive transport enquiry with AI Chatbot [Conference session]. 2020 4th International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Control Systems (ICICCS).

32.

Doborjeh

Hemmington

Doborjeh

Kasabov

(2022). Artificial intelligence: A systematic review of methods and applications in hospitality and tourism. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 34(3), 1154–1176. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-06-2021-0767

33.

Drolet

Williams

Lau-Gesk

(2007). Age-related differences in responses to affective vs. rational ads for hedonic vs. utilitarian products. Marketing Letters, 18(4), 211–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-007-9016-z

34.

Dujmović

Vitasović

(2015). Postmodern society and tourism. Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Management, 3(9–10), 192–203. https://doi.org/10.17265/2328-2169/2015.10.003

35.

Eletxigerra

Barrutia

J. M.

Echebarria

(2021). Tourist expertise and pre-travel value co-creation: Task-related processes and beyond. Tourism Management Perspectives, 37, 100772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2020.100772

36.

Errichiello

Micera

Atzeni

Del Chiappa

(2019). Exploring the implications of wearable virtual reality technology for museum visitors’ experience: A cluster analysis. International Journal of Tourism Research, 21(5), 590–605. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2283

37.

Fan

Jiang

Deng

(2022). Immersive technology: A meta-analysis of augmented/virtual reality applications and their impact on tourism experience. Tourism Management, 91, 104534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2022.104534

38.

Femenia-Serra

Neuhofer

(2018). Smart tourism experiences: Conceptualisation, key dimensions and research agenda. Journal of Regional Research, 42, 129–150.

39.

Fernández-Ruano

M. L.

Frías-Jamilena

D. M.

Polo-Peña

A. I.

Peco-Torres

(2022). The use of gamification in environmental interpretation and its effect on customer-based destination brand equity: The moderating role of psychological distance. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 23, 100677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2021.100677

40.

Flavián

Ibáñez-Sánchez

Orús

(2019). Integrating virtual reality devices into the body: Effects of technological embodiment on customer engagement and behavioral intentions toward the destination. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 36(7), 847–863. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2019.1618781

41.

Florido-Benítez

(2024). Metaverse cannot be an extra marketing immersive tool to increase sales in tourism cities. International Journal of Tourism Cities, 10(3), 974–994. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijtc-01-2024-0001

42.

Florido-Benítez

del Alcázar Martínez

(2024). How Artificial Intelligence (AI) is powering new tourism marketing and the future agenda for smart tourist destinations. Electronics, 13(21), 4151. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13214151

43.

Foley

N. M.

O’Connell

E. P.

Lehane

E. A.

Livingstone

Maher

Kaimkhani

Cil

Relihan

Bennett

M. W.

Redmond

H. P.

Corrigan

M. A.

(2016). PATI: Patient accessed tailored information: A pilot study to evaluate the effect on preoperative breast cancer patients of information delivered via a mobile application. Breast, 30, 54–58.

44.

Ford

Miller

(1996). Gender differences in internet perceptions and use. Aslib Proceedings, 48(7–8), 183–192.

45.

Foro Económico Mundial (FEM). (2019). The travel and tourism competitiveness report 2019. https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-travel-tourism-competitiveness-report-2019/

46.

Fuertes

J. L.

González

Á. L.

Mariscal

Ruiz

(2007, December). Developing virtual storytellers for the virtual Alhambra [Conference session]. International Conference on Virtual Storytelling.

47.

Ghesh

Alexander

Davis

(2023). The artificial intelligence-enabled customer experience in tourism: A systematic literature review. Tourism Review, 79, 1017–1037. https://doi.org/10.1108/tr-04-2023-0255

48.

Ghinea

Chen

S. Y.

(2006). Perceptual multimedia: A cognitive style perspective. In Ghinea

Chen

S. Y.

(Eds.), Digital multimedia perception and design (pp. 187–205). IGI Global.

49.

Godovykh

Tasci

A. D. A.

(2020). Customer experience in tourism: A review of definitions, components, and measurements. Tourism Management Perspectives, 35, 100694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2020.100694

50.

González-Rodríguez

M. R.

Díaz-Fernández

M. C.

Pino-Mejías

M. Á

. (2020). The impact of virtual reality technology on tourists’ experience: A textual data analysis. Soft Computing, 24(18), 13879–13892. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00500-020-04883-y

51.

Gretzel

Jamal

(2009). Conceptualizing the creative tourist class: Technology, mobility, and tourism experiences. Tourism Analysis, 14(4), 471–481. https://doi.org/10.3727/108354209x12596287114219

52.

Gretzel

Sigala

Xiang

Koo

(2015). Smart tourism: Foundations and developments. Electronic Markets, 25, 179–188.

53.

Grosso

F. O.

Rodriguez-Molina

M. Á.

Castañeda-Garcia

J. A.

(2024). The impact of destination-brand social media content on consumer online brand-related activities (COBRAs). Tourism Management Perspectives, 51, 101239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2024.101239

54.

Grundner

Neuhofer

(2021). The bright and dark sides of artificial intelligence: A futures perspective on tourist destination experiences. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 19, 100511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2020.100511

55.

Gupta

Modgil

Lee

C. K.

Cho

Park

(2022). Artificial intelligence enabled robots for stay experience in the hospitality industry in a smart city. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 122(10), 2331–2350. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMDS-10-2021-0621

56.

Guttentag

D. A.

(2010). Virtual reality: Applications and implications for tourism. Tourism Management, 31(5), 637–651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2009.07.003

57.

Hair

J. F.

Black

W. C.

Babin

B. F.

Anderson

R. E.

(2018). Multivariate Data Analysis (8th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.

58.

Heckler

S. E.

Childers

T. L.

Houston

M. J.

(1993). On the construct validity of the SOP scale. Journal of Mental Imagery, 17(3-4), 119–132.

59.

(2018). When art meets tech: The role of augmented reality in enhancing museum experiences and purchase intentions. Tourism Management, 68, 127–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.03.003

60.

Hirschberg

Manning

C. D.

(2015). Advances in natural language processing. Science, 349(6245), 261–266. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa8685

61.

Höffler

T. N.

Prechtl

Nerdel

(2010). The influence of visual cognitive style when learning from instructional animations and static pictures. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 479–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.03.001

62.

Höffler

T. N.

Schwartz

R. N.

(2011). Effects of pacing and cognitive style across dynamic and non-dynamic representations. Computers & Education, 57(2), 1716–1726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.03.012

63.

Hosany

Witham

(2010). Dimensions of cruisers’ experiences, satisfaction, and intention to recommend. Journal of Travel Research, 49(3), 351–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287509346859

64.

Hou

Yang

Sun

(2017). Do pictures help? The effects of pictures and food names on menu evaluations. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 60, 94–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2016.10.008

65.

Howell

D. C.

(2010). Statistical methods for psychology. Thomson Wadsworth.

66.

Hsu

(1996). Multiple comparisons: Theory and methods. CRC Press.

67.

Huang

Chao

de la Mora Velasco

Bilgihan

Wei

(2022). When artificial intelligence meets the hospitality and tourism industry: An assessment framework to inform theory and management. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights, 5(5), 1080–1100. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTI-01-2021-0021

68.

Huang

C. D.

Goo

Nam

Yoo

C. W.

(2017). Smart tourism technologies in travel planning: The role of exploration and exploitation. Information Management, 54(6), 757–770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2016.11.010

69.

Huang

C. L.

Luo

Y. F.

Yang

S. C.

C. M.

Chen

A. S.

(2020). Influence of students’ learning style, sense of presence, and cognitive load on learning outcomes in an immersive virtual reality learning environment. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 58(3), 596–615. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633119867422

70.

Huang

Chen

Huang

Kong

(2021). Customer-robot interactions: Understanding customer experience with service robots. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 99, 103078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.103078

71.

Hudson

Matson-Barkat

Pallamin

Jegou

(2019). With or without you? Interaction and immersion in a virtual reality experience. Journal of Business Research, 100, 459–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.10.062

72.

Hyde

K. F.

(2008). Information processing and touring planning theory. Annals of Tourism Research, 35(3), 712–731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2008.05.001

73.

Instituto de Estadística y Cartografía de Andalucía (IECA). (2022). Tourism Outlook Survey of Andalusia. https://www.juntadeandalucia.es/institutodeestadisticaycartografia/badea/informe/datosaldia?CodOper=b3_271&idNode=9801#9804 [Spanish]

74.

Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE). (2023a). Hotel occupancy survey. https://www.ine.es/dynt3/inebase/en/index.htm?padre=238&capsel=238

75.

Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE). (2023b). Residents travel survey. https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176990&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735576863

76.

Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE). (2023c). Tourist expenditure survey: Methodology. https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177002&menu=metodologia&idp=1254735576863

77.

Jacobsen

J. K. S.

Munar

A. M.

(2012). Tourist information search and destination choice in a digital age. Tourism Management Perspectives, 1, 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2011.12.005

78.

Jiang

Deng

Zheng

(2023). Understanding the core technological features of virtual and augmented reality in tourism: A qualitative and quantitative review. Current Issues in Tourism, 26(21), 3444–3464. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2023.2214847

79.

Jiménez-Barreto

Rubio

Campo-Martínez

(2019). The online destination brand experience: Development of a sensorial–cognitive–conative model. International Journal of Tourism Research, 21(2), 245–258.

80.

Jiménez-Barreto

Rubio

Campo

Molinillo

(2020). Linking the online destination brand experience and brand credibility with tourists’ behavioral intentions toward a destination. Tourism Management, 79, 104101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104101

81.

Jiménez-Barreto

Rubio

Molinillo

(2021). “Find a flight for me, oscar!” Motivational customer experiences with chatbots. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 33(11), 3860–3882. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijchm-10-2020-1244

82.

Jonassen

D. H.

Grabowski

B. L. H.

(1993). Handbook of individual differences, learning, and instruction. Routledge.

83.

Jung

Dieck

Lee

Chung

(2016). Effects of virtual reality and augmented reality on visitor experiences in museum. In Inversini

Schegg

(Eds.), Information and communication technologies in tourism (pp. 621–635). Springer.

84.

Kavitha

Lohani

(2019). A critical study on the use of artificial intelligence, e-learning technology and tools to enhance the learners experience. Cluster Computing, 22(S3), 6985–6989. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10586-018-2017-2

85.

Kim

(2024). Why do experiments fail? Six practical suggestions for successful online experiments. Journal of Travel Research, 63, 1835–1844. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875231209983

86.

Kim

J. H.

Kim

Park

Kim

Jhang

King

(2025). When ChatGPT gives incorrect answers: The impact of inaccurate information by generative AI on tourism decision-making. Journal of Travel Research, 64, 51–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875231212996

87.

Kim

M. J.

Hall

C. M.

(2019). A hedonic motivation model in virtual reality tourism: Comparing visitors and non-visitors. International Journal of Information Management, 46, 236–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.11.016

88.

Kiourt

Pavlidis

Koutsoudis

Kalles

(2017, October). Multi-agents based virtual environments for cultural heritage [Conference session]. 2017 XXVI International Conference on Information, Communication and Automation Technologies (ICAT).

89.

Kirby

J. R.

Moore

P. J.

Schofield

N. J.

(1988). Verbal and visual learning styles. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 13(2), 169–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-476X(88)90017-3

90.

Kirk

R. E.

(1995). Experimental design: Procedures for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Brooks/Cole.

91.

Knani

Echchakoui

Ladhari

(2022). Artificial intelligence in tourism and hospitality: Bibliometric analysis and research agenda. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 107, 103317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2022.103317

92.

Knutson

B. J.

Beck

J. A.

(2008). Identifying the dimensions of the experience construct. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 4(3–4), 23–35. https://doi.org/10.1300/J162v04n03_03

93.

Koć-Januchta

Höffler

Thoma

G.-B.

Prechtl

Leutner

(2017). Visualizers versus verbalizers: Effects of cognitive style on learning with texts and pictures – An eye-tracking study. Computers in Human Behavior, 68, 170–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.028

94.

Koć-Januchta

M. M.

Höffler

T. N.

Prechtl

Leutner

(2020). Is too much help an obstacle? Effects of interactivity and cognitive style on learning with dynamic versus non-dynamic visualizations with narrative explanations. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(6), 2971–2990. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09822-0

95.

Koć-Januchta

M. M.

Höffler

T. N.

Eckhardt

Leutner

(2019). Does modality play a role? Visual–verbal cognitive style and multimedia learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 35(6), 747–757. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12381

96.

Larsen

(2007). Aspects of a psychology of the tourist experience. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 7(1), 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/15022250701226014

97.

Lee

Jung

T. H.

Tom Dieck

M. C.

Chung

(2020). Experiencing immersive virtual reality in museums. Information Management, 57(5), 103229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2019.103229

98.

Leopardi

Ceccacci

Mengoni

Naspetti

Gambelli

Ozturk

Zanoli

(2021). X-reality technologies for museums: A comparative evaluation based on presence and visitors experience through user studies. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 47, 188–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2020.10.005

99.

Leung

X. Y.

Wen

(2020). Chatbot usage in restaurant takeout orders: A comparison study of three ordering methods. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 45, 377–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.09.004

100.

Jiang

Sham

Shi

Fazal

(2019, September). Real-world conversational AI for hotel bookings [Conference session]. 2019 Second International Conference on Artificial Intelligence for Industries (AI4I).

101.

Xiang

Cai

(2021, December). The influence of learning style on biology teaching in AR learning environment [Conference session]. 2021 IEEE International Conference on Engineering, Technology & Education (TALE).

102.

Lee

K. Y.

Emokpae

Yang

S. B.

(2021). What makes you continuously use chatbot services? Evidence from Chinese online travel agencies. Electronic Markets, 31(3), 575–599. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12525-020-00454-z

103.

Ling

E. C.

Tussyadiah

Liu

Stienmetz

(2025). Perceived intelligence of artificially intelligent assistants for travel: Scale Development and validation. Journal of Travel Research, 64, 299–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875231217899

104.

Ling

E. C.

Tussyadiah

Tuomi

Stienmetz

Ioannou

(2021). Factors influencing users’ adoption and use of conversational agents: A systematic review. Psychology and Marketing, 38(7), 1031–1051. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21491

105.

Lin

I. Y.

Mattila

A. S.

(2021). The value of service robots from the hotel guest’s perspective: A mixed-method approach. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 94, 102876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.102876

106.

Lin

Wang

(2019, August). The study and application of adaptive learning method based on virtual reality for engineering education [Conference session]. International Conference on Image and Graphics.

107.

Lin

Wang

Lan

(2022). The study of virtual reality adaptive learning method based on learning style model. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 30(2), 396–414. https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22462

108.

Zhang

Liu

(2023). Constructing online destination brand experience and bilateral behavioral intentions: A sensory conduction perspective. Current Issues in Tourism, 26(20), 3364–3380. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2022.2122782

109.

Loureiro

S. M. C.

(2014). The role of the rural tourism experience economy in place attachment and behavioral intentions. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 40, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2014.02.010

110.

Loureiro

S. M. C.

Guerreiro

Ali

(2020). 20 Years of research on virtual reality and augmented reality in tourism context: A text-mining approach. Tourism Management, 77, 104028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2019.104028

111.

Luck

Aylett

(2000). Applying artificial intelligence to virtual reality: Intelligent virtual environments. Applied Artificial Intelligence, 14(1), 3–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/088395100117142

112.

Yang

(2018). Effects of the visual/verbal learning style on concentration and achievement in mobile learning. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education, 14(5), 1719–1729. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/85110

113.

Machidon

O. M.

Duguleana

Carrozzino

(2018). Virtual humans in cultural heritage ICT applications: A review. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 33, 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2018.01.007

114.

MacInnis

D. J.

Price

L. L.

(1987). The role of imagery in information processing: Review and extensions. Journal of Consumer Research, 13(4), 473. https://doi.org/10.1086/209082

115.

Marasco

Buonincontri

van Niekerk

Orlowski

Okumus

(2018). Exploring the role of next-generation virtual technologies in destination marketing. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 9, 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2017.12.002

116.

Mayer

R. E.

Massa

L. J.

(2003). Three facets of visual and verbal learners: Cognitive ability, cognitive style, and learning preference. Journal of Education & Psychology, 95(4), 833–846. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.833

117.

McKay

(1999). An investigation of text-based instructional materials enhanced with graphics. Educational Psychologist, 19(3), 323–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341990190306

118.

McLean

Barhorst

J. B.

(2022). Living the experience before you go . . . but did it meet expectations? The role of virtual reality during hotel bookings. Journal of Travel Research, 61(6), 1233–1251. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875211028313

119.

Nannelli

Capone

Lazzeretti

(2023). Artificial intelligence in hospitality and tourism. State of the art and future research avenues. European Planning Studies, 31, 1325–1420. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2023.2180321

120.

Navío-Marco

Ruiz-Gómez

L. M.

Sevilla-Sevilla

(2018). Progress in information technology and tourism management: 30 years on and 20 years after the internet – Revisiting Buhalis & Law’s landmark study about eTourism. Tourism Management, 69, 460–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.06.002

121.

Neuhofer

Buhalis

Ladkin

(2014). A typology of technology-enhanced tourism experiences. International Journal of Tourism Research, 16(4), 340–350. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.1958

122.

Neuhofer

Magnus

Celuch

(2021). The impact of artificial intelligence on event experiences: A scenario technique approach. Electronic Markets, 31(3), 601–617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12525-020-00433-4

123.

Noh

Y. G.

Hong

J. H.

(2021). Designing reenacted chatbots to enhance museum experience. Applied Sciences, 11(16), 7420. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11167420

124.

Fiore

A. M.

Jeoung

(2007). Measuring experience economy concepts: Tourism applications. Journal of Travel Research, 46(2), 119–132. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287507304039

125.

Orden-Mejía

M. A.

Huertas

(2022). Tourist interaction and satisfaction with the chatbot evokes pre-visit destination image formation? A case study. Anatolia, 34(4), 509–523. https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2022.2072918

126.

Orth

U. R.

Lockshin

Spielmann

Holm

(2019). Design antecedents of telepresence in virtual service environments. Journal of Service Research, 22(2), 202–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670518812705

127.

O’Sullivan

E. L.

Spangler

K. J.

(1998). Experience marketing: Strategies for the new millennium. Venture Publishing Inc.

128.

Paivio

(1971). Imagery and verbal processes. Psychology Press.

129.

Pardamean

Suparyanto

Cenggoro

T. W.

Sudigyo

Anugrahana

(2022). AI-based learning style prediction in online learning for primary education. IEEE Access, 10, 35725–35735. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3160177

130.

Pillai

Sivathanu

(2020). Adoption of AI-based chatbots for hospitality and tourism. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 32(10), 3199–3226. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-04-2020-0259

131.

Pine

B. J.

Gilmore

J. H.

(1998). Welcome to the experience economy. Harvard Business Review, 76(4), 97–105.

132.

Pine

B. J.

Gilmore

J. H.

(1999). The experience economy: Work is theatre & every business a stage. Harvard Business Press.

133.

Pine

B. J.

Gilmore

J. H.

(2011). The experience economy, updated edition. Harvard Business Press.

134.

Pine

B. J.

Gilmore

J. H.

(2013). The experience economy: Past, present and future. In Sundbo

Sørensen

(Eds.), Handbook on the experience economy (pp. 21–44). Edward Elgar.

135.

Pine

B. J.

Gilmore

J. H.

(2014). A leader’s guide to innovation in the experience economy. Strategy and Leadership, 42(1), 24–29.

136.

Pine

B. J.

Korn

K. C.

(2011). Infinite possibility: Creating customer value on the digital frontier. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

137.

Plass

J. L.

Chun

D. M.

Mayer

R. E.

Leutner

(1998). Supporting visual and verbal learning preferences in a second-language multimedia learning environment. Journal of Education & Psychology, 90(1), 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.90.1.25

138.

Rahimizhian

Ozturen

Ilkan

(2020). Emerging realm of 360-degree technology to promote tourism destination. Technology and Society, 63, 101411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2020.101411

139.

Rainoldi

Driescher

Lisnevska

Zvereva

Stavinska

Relota

Egger

(2018). Virtual reality: An innovative tool in destinations’ marketing. Gaze Journal of Tourism and Hospitality, 9, 53–68. https://doi.org/10.3126/gaze.v9i0.19721

140.

Raptis

G. E.

Katsini

C. P.

Fidas

Avouris

N. M.

(2018, May). Visualization of cultural-heritage content based on individual cognitive differences [Conference session]. Proceedings of the AVI-CH 2018 Workshop on Advanced Visual Interfaces for Cultural Heritage co-located with 2018 International Conference on Advanced Visual Interfaces (AVI 2018). https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2091/paper9.pdf

141.

Richardson

(1977). Verbalizer-visualizer: A cognitive style dimension. Journal of Mental Imagery, 1(1), 109–125.

142.

Riding

Cheema

(1991). Cognitive styles: An overview and integration. Educational Psychologist, 11(3–4), 193–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341910110301

143.

Riding

Douglas

(1993). The effect of cognitive style and mode of presentation on learning performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 63(2), 297–307. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1993.tb01059.x

144.

Riding

R. J.

(1997). On the nature of cognitive style. Educational Psychologist, 17(1-2), 29–49.

145.

Riding

R. J.

Ashmore

(1980). Verbaliser-imager learning style and children’s recall of information presented in pictorial versus written form. Educational Studies, 6(2), 141–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305569800060204

146.

Riding

R. J.

Rayner

S. G.

(1998). Cognitive styles and learning strategies. David Fulton Publishers.

147.

Rossiter

J. R.

Percy

(1978). Visual imaging ability as a mediator of advertising response. Advances in Consumer Research, 5, 621–629.

148.

Said

Torra

(Eds.) (2019). Data Science in practice. Springer.

149.

Saydam

M. B.

Arici

H. E.

Koseoglu

M. A.

(2022). How does the tourism and hospitality industry use artificial intelligence? A review of empirical studies and future research agenda. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 31(8), 908–936. https://doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2022.2118923

150.

Shawar

B. A.

Atwell

(2007). Chatbots: Are they really useful? Journal for Language Technology and Computational Linguistics, 22(1), 29–49. https://doi.org/10.21248/jlcl.22.2007.88

151.

Shawar

B. A.

Atwell

E. S.

(2005). Using corpora in machine-learning chatbot systems. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 10(4), 489–516. https://doi.org/10.1075/ijcl.10.4.06sha

152.

Shin

Kim

Lee

Yhee

Koo

(2025). ChatGPT for trip planning: The effect of narrowing down options. Journal of Travel Research, 64, 247–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875231214196

153.

Slater

Usoh

Steed

(1994). Depth of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 3(2), 130–144. https://doi.org/10.1162/pres.1994.3.2.130

154.

Slater

Wilbur

(1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments, 6(6), 603–616.

155.

Soliman

Cardoso

De Almeida

G. F.

Araújo

A. F.

Vila

N. A.

(2021). Mapping smart experiences in tourism: A bibliometric approach. European Journal of Tourism Research, 28(2809), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.54055/ejtr.v28i.2254

156.

Spielmann

Orth

U. R.

(2021). Can advertisers overcome consumer qualms with virtual reality? Increasing operational transparency through self-guided 360-degree tours. Journal of Advertising Research, 61(2), 147–163. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-2020-015

157.

Stankov

Gretzel

(2020). Tourism 4.0 technologies and tourist experiences: A human-centered design perspective. Information Technology & Tourism, 22(3), 477–488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40558-020-00186-y

158.

Sundbo

(2021). Advanced introduction to the experience economy. Edward Elgar Publishing.

159.

Tabachnick

B. G.

Fidell

L. S.

(2007). Experimental designs using ANOVA. Duxbury.

160.

Tan

W. K.

(2018). From fantasy to reality: A study of pre-trip planning from the perspective of destination image attributes and temporal psychological distance. Service Business, 12(1), 65–84.

161.

Torres

J. C. P.

Tapia

P. S. P.

Hernández

C. E. N.

Zamora-Sánchez

(2017). Visual learning style: an educational strategy for long-term memory development. Revista de Estilos de Aprendizaje, 10(20), 240–261. https://doi.org/10.55777/rea.v10i20.1064 [Spanish].

162.

Trunfio

Campana

(2019). A visitors’ experience model for mixed reality in the museum. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(9), 1053–1058. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2019.1586847

163.

Tung

V. W. S.

(2018). Exploring customer experiences with robotics in hospitality. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 30(7), 2680–2697. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijchm-06-2017-0322

164.

Tung

V. W. S.

Ritchie

J. R. B.

(2011). Exploring the essence of memorable tourism experiences. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(4), 1367–1386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2011.03.009

165.

Tuo

Zhao

(2024). Artificial intelligence in tourism: Insights and future research agenda. Tourism Review, 80, 793–812. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-03-2024-0180

166.

Tussyadiah

(2020). A review of research into automation in tourism: Launching the Annals of Tourism Research curated collection on Artificial Intelligence and Robotics in Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 81, 102883. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.102883

167.

Uriel

(1995). Data Analysis: Time series and multivariate analysis. AC [Spanish].

168.

Viglia

Dolnicar

(2020). A review of experiments in tourism and hospitality. Annals of Tourism Research, 80, 102858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.102858

169.

Walls

A. R.

Okumus

Wang

Kwun

D. J. W.

(2011). An epistemological view of consumer experiences. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(1), 10–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.03.008

170.

Wang

Mendori

Hoel

(2019). Strategies for multimedia learning object recommendation in a language learning support system: Verbal learners vs. visual learners. International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 35(4–5), 345–355. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2018.1543085

171.

Wilcox

(1987). New designs in analysis of variance. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 29–60.

172.

Witkin

H. A.

Moore

C. A.

Goodenough

D. R.

Cox

P. W.

(1977). Field-dependent and field-independent cognitive styles and their educational implications. Review of Educational Research, 47(1), 1–64. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543047001001

173.

Ying

Tang

Tan

Wei

(2022). Virtual reality in destination marketing: Telepresence, social presence, and tourists’ visit intentions. Journal of Travel Research, 61(8), 1738–1756. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875211047273

174.

Yuan

Hong

(2023). Impacts of virtual reality on tourism experience and behavioral intentions: Moderating role of novelty seeking. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 48, 1067–1080. https://doi.org/10.1177/10963480231171301

175.

Yuan

K. H.

Hayashi

(2003). Bootstrap approach to inference and power analysis based on three test statistics for covariance structure models. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 56(1), 93–110.

176.

Yung

Khoo-Lattimore

(2019). New realities: A systematic literature review on virtual reality and augmented reality in tourism research. Current Issues in Tourism, 22(17), 2056–2081. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2017.1417359

177.

Zhang

Zhu

Deng

Zheng

Liu

Wang

Zeng

(2022). “I am here to assist your tourism”: Predicting continuance intention to use AI-based chatbots for tourism. Does gender really matter? International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 39, 1887–1917. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2022.2124345

178.

Zhu

D. C. W.

Hall

C. M.

Fong

L. H. N.

Koupaei

S. N.

Lin

(2023). Exploring non-immersive virtual reality experiences in tourism: Empirical evidence from a world heritage site. International Journal of Tourism Research, 25(3), 372–383. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2574

179.

Zhu

Zhang

Zou

Jin

(2023). Investigating customers’ responses to artificial intelligence chatbots in online travel agencies: The moderating role of product familiarity. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, 14(2), 208–224. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTT-02-2022-0041

180.

Zikmund

W. G.

(1998). Essentials of marketing research. Harcourt Brace College Publishers.