Safety for tourists at places visited is essential to their enjoyment and experiences, as well as a determinant of destination success. Yet, little attention has been paid to the conceptualization and scale development for tourist perceived safety at destinations (TPSD). The primary purpose of this research was to identify the dimensions of TPSD and develop a scale for measuring it based on safety system theory. A three-stage study in a mixed-method design was conducted to develop and validate TPSD. Stage 1 identified the dimensions and initial items of TPSD through extensive literature reviewing and content analysis of travel blogs. In stage 2 (n = 300), an explanatory factor analysis was conducted to refine and validate the preliminary items. Stage 3 (n = 1,830) provided empirical support for a 20-item, five-dimension (human, facility and equipment, natural environment, social environment, management) TPSD scale through confirmatory factor analysis.
AlegreJoaquínMateoS.PouL.2013. “Tourism Participation and Expenditure by Spanish Households: The Effects of the Economic Crisis and Unemployment.” Tourism Management39:37–49.
2.
AmirA. F.IsmailM. N. I.SeeT. P.2015. “Sustainable Tourist Environment: Perception of International Women Travelers on Safety and Security in Kuala Lumpur.” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences168:123–33.
3.
AkgünA. E.SenturkH. A.KeskinH.OnalI.2020. “The Relatinship Among Nostalgic Emotion, Destination Image and Tourist Behavior: An Empirical Study of Istanbul.” Journal of Destination Marketing and Management28:1–13.
4.
BagozziR. P.1981. “Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error: A Comment.” Journal of Marketing Research18 (3): 375–81.
5.
BeckenS.HugheyK. F.2013. “Linking Tourism into Emergency Management Structures to Enhance Disaster Risk Reduction.” Tourism Management36:77–85.
6.
BentleyT.PageS.MeyerD.ChalmersD.LairdI.2001. “How Safe Is Adventure Tourism in New Zealand? An Exploratory Analysis.” Applied Ergonomics32 (4): 327–38.
7.
BoakyeK. A.2012. “Tourists’ Views on Safety and Vulnerability. A Study of Some Selected Towns in Ghana.” Tourism Management33 (2): 327–33.
8.
BreitsohlJ.GarrodB.2016. “Assessing Tourists’ Cognitive, Emotional and Behavioural Reactions to an Unethical Destination Incident.” Tourism Management54:209–20.
9.
CaberM.AlbayrakT.2016. “Assessing Daily Tour Service Quality: A Proposal for a Dailyserv Scale.” Journal of Destination Marketing & Management7:18–25.
10.
CavlekN.2002. “Tour Operators and Destination Safety.” Annals of Tourism Research29 (2): 478–96.
11.
ChanE. S. W.LamD.2013. “Hotel Safety and Security Systems: Bridging the Gap between Managers and Guests.” International Journal of Hospitality Management32:202–16.
12.
ChauhanV.2007. “Safety and Security Perceptions of Tourists Visiting Kashmir, India.” Advances in Hospitality and Leisure3:3–17.
13.
ChenC. F., and Tsai, D. C. 2007. “How Destination Image and Evaluative Factors Affect Behavioral Intentions?” Tourism Management28 (4): 1115–22.
14.
ChenW.2014. “A Quantitative Fuzzy Causal Model for Hazard Analysis of Man–Machine-Environment System.” Safety Science62 (2): 475–82.
15.
ChiG. Q.QuH.2008. “Examining the Structural Relationships of Destination Image, Tourist Satisfaction and Destination Loyalty: An Integrated Approach.” Tourism Management29 (4): 624–36.
16.
Chia-ChenL.WangS. W.HsuM. K.Shih-MingJ.2018. “Air Passenger’s Perception toward Pre-flight Safety Briefing Videos: Does It Matter?” Journal of Air Transport Management72:20–31.
17.
ChoocharukulK.SriroongvikraiK.2017. “Road Safety Awareness and Comprehension of Road Signs from International Tourist’s Perspectives: A Case Study of Thailand.” Transportation Research Procedia25:4518–28.
18.
ChurchillG. A.1979. “A Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing Constructs.” Journal of Marketing Research16 (1): 64–73.
19.
CoxonC.2006. “Safety in the Dive Tourism Industry of Australia.” In Tourism in Turbulent Times: Towards Safe Experiences for Visitors, edited by WilksJ.PendergastD.LeggatP., 199–215. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
20.
EchtnerC. M.RitchieJ. R. B.1993. “The Measurement of Destination Image: An Empirical Assessment.” Journal of Travel Research31 (4): 3–13.
21.
EdmondsonA.1999. “Psychological Safety and Learning Behavior in Work Teams.” Administrative Science Quarterly44 (2): 350–83.
22.
EdwardsE.1972. “Man and Machine: Systems for Safety.” In Proceedings of British Airline Pilots Association Technical Symposium, 21–36. London: British Pilots Association
23.
EitzingerC.WiedemannP.2007. “Risk Perceptions in the Alpine Tourist Destination Tyrol: An Exploratory Analysis of Residents’ Views.” Tourism Management28 (3): 911–16.
FourieJ.Rossello-NadalJ.Santana-GallegoM.2020. “Fatal Attraction: How Security Threats Hurt Tourism.” Journal of Travel Research59 (2): 209–19.
26.
FreitasC. R. D.2010. “Recreation Climate Assessment.” International Journal of Climatology10 (1): 89–103.
27.
GartnerW. C.ShenJ.1992. “The Impact of Tiananmen Square on China’s Tourism Image.” Journal of Travel Research30 (4): 47–52.
28.
GeorgeR.2003. “Tourist’s Perceptions of Safety and Security while Visiting Cape Town.” Tourism Management24 (5): 575–85.
29.
GeorgeR.2010. “Visitor Perceptions of Crime-Safety and Attitudes towards Risk: The Case of Table Mountain National Park, Cape town.” Tourism Management31 (6): 806–15.
30.
GuilfordJ. P.1965. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education, 4th ed.New York: McGraw-Hill.
31.
GurtnerY.2016. “Returning to Paradise: Investigating Issues of Tourism Crisis and Disaster Recovery on the Island of Bali.” Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management28:11–19.
32.
HairJ. F.AndersonR. E.TathamR. L.BlackW. C.2010. Multivariate Data Analysis: A Global Perspective 7 Pearson. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
33.
HosanyS.EkinciY.UysalM.2007. “Destination Image and Destination Personality.” International Journal of Culture, Tourism & Hospitality Research1 (1): 62–81.
34.
HübnerA.GösslingS.2012. “Tourist Perceptions of Extreme Weather Events in Martinique.” Journal of Destination Marketing & Management1 (1/2): 47–55.
35.
JamotD. G. C.ParkJ. Y.2019. “System Theory based Hazard Analysis for Construction Site Safety: A Case Study from Cameroon.” Safety Science118:783–94.
36.
JenkinC. M.2006. “Risk Perception and Terrorism: Applying the Psychometric Paradigm.” Homeland Security Affairs2 (2): 1–14.
37.
KamH.PetrickJ. F.2010. “Developing a Measurement Scale for Constraints to Cruising.” Annals of Tourism Research37 (1): 206–28.
38.
KapuścińskiGrzegorzRichardsB.2016. “News Framing Effects on Destination Risk Perception.” Tourism Management57:234–44.
39.
KılıçlarA.UşaklıA.TayfunA.2018. “Terrorism Prevention in Tourism Destinations: Security Forces vs. Civil Authority Perspectives.” Journal of Destination Marketing & Management8:232–46.
40.
KooT. T. R.CollinsA. T.WilliamsonA.CaponecchiaC.2019. “How Safety Risk Information and Alternative Forms of Presenting It Affect Traveler Decision Rules in International Flight Choice.” Journal of Travel Research58 (3): 480–95.
41.
LeeY.Pennington-GrayL.KimJ.2019. “Does Location Matter? Exploring the Spatial Patterns of Food Safety in a Tourism Destination.” Tourism Management71:18–33.
42.
LevesonN.2004. “A New Accident Model for Engineering Safer Systems.” Safety Science42 (4): 237–70.
43.
LevesonN.2011. Engineering a Safer World: Systems Thinking Applied to Safety. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
44.
LiG.LawR.VuH. Q.JiaR.ZhaoX. Y.2015. “Identifying Emerging Hotel Preferences Using Emerging Pattern Mining Technique.” Tourism Management46:311–21.
45.
LiW.ZhangL.LiangW.2017. “An Accident Causation Analysis and Taxonomy (ACAT) Model of Complex Industrial System from Both System Safety and Control Theory Perspectives.” Safety Science92:94–103.
46.
LiX., ed. 2016. Chinese Outbound Tourism 2.0. Waretown, NJ: Apple Academic Press.
LowerM.MagottJ.SkorupskiJ.2018. “A System-Theoretic Accident Model and Process with Human Factors Analysis and Classification System Taxonomy.” Safety Science110:393–410.
49.
MacLaurinT. L.2004. “The Importance of Food Safety in Travel Planning and Destination Selection.” Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing15 (4): 233–57.
50.
MaguireE. R.JohnsonD.2010. “Measuring Public Perceptions of the Police.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management33 (4): 703–30.
51.
MansfeldY.FreundlishA.KutielH.2004. “The Relationship between Weather Conditions and Tourist’s Perception of Comfort: The Case of the Winter Sun Resort of Eilat.” In Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Climate Change and Tourism, edited by AmelungB.VinerD.Warsaw, Poland.
52.
MaoY.XuT.2011. “Research of 4m1e’s Effect on Engineering Quality Based on Structural Equation Model.” Systems Engineering Procedia1:213–20.
53.
MitchellV. W.GreatorexM.1993. “Risk Perception and Reduction in the Purchase of Consumer Services.” Service Industries Journal13 (4): 179–200.
54.
OkuyamaT.2018. “Analysis of Optimal Timing of Tourism Demand Recovery Policies from Natural Disaster Using the Contingent Behavior Method.” Tourism Management64:37–54.
55.
PageS. J.BentleyT. A.WalkerL.2005. “Scoping the Nature and Extent of Adventure Tourism Operations in Scotland: How Safe Are They?” Tourism Management26 (3): 381–97.
56.
ParkK.ReisingerY.2010. “Differences in the Perceived Influence of Natural Disasters and Travel Risk on International Travel.” Tourism Geographies12 (1): 1–24.
57.
PatwardhanP.RibeiroM. A.PayiniV.WoosnamK. M.MallyaJ.GopalakrishnanP.2020. “Visitors’ Place Attachment and Destination Loyalty: Examining the Roles of Emotional Solidarity and Perceived Safety.” Journal of Travel Research59 (1): 3–21.
58.
PecceiR.RosenthalP.2000. “Front-Line Responses to Customer Orientation Programmes: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis.” International Journal of Human Resource Management11 (3): 562–90.
59.
PizamA.SmithG.2000. “Tourism and Terrorism: A Quantitative Analysis of Major Terrorist Acts and Their Impact on Tourism Destinations.” Tourism Economics6 (2): 123–38.
60.
PutraK. D.2010. “Image Restoration Strategy of Bali Tourism Crises.” Journal of Communication Sciences5 (1): 71–88.
61.
RasmussenJ.SuedungI.2000. “Proactive Risk Management in a Dynamic Society.” Swedish Rescue Services Agency.
62.
RittichainuwatB.2008. “Responding to Disaster: The Case Study of Phuket, Thailand.” Journal of Travel Research46 (4): 422–32.
63.
RittichainuwatB. N.2013. “Tourists’ and Tourism Suppliers’ Perceptions toward Crisis Management on Tsunami.” Tourism Management34:112–21.
64.
RittichainuwatB. N.ChakrabortyG.2012. “Perceptions of Importance and What Safety Is Enough.” Journal of Business Research65 (1): 42–50.
65.
RyanC.2003. “Risk Acceptance in Adventure Tourism-Paradox and Context.” In Managing Tourist Health and Safety in the New Millennium, edited by WilksJ.PageS. J.Oxford: Pergamon.
66.
ScottD.LemieuxC.2010. “Weather and Climate Information for Tourism.” Procedia Environmental Sciences1 (1): 146–83.
67.
SeabraC.DolnicarS.AbrantesJ.KastenholzE.2013. “Heterogeneity in Risk and Safety Perceptions of International Tourists.” Tourism Management36:502–10.
68.
SharifpourM.WaltersG.RitchieB. W.WinterC.2014. “Investigating the Role of Prior Knowledge in Tourist Decision Making: A Structural Equation Model of Risk Perceptions and Information Search.” Journal of Travel Research53 (3): 307–22.
69.
SheldonP. J.FoxM.1988. “The Role of Foodservice in Vacation Choice and Experience: A Cross-Cultural Analysis.” Journal of Travel Research27 (2): 9–15.
70.
SierraF. J. M.Rubio-RomeroJ. C.GámezM. C. R.2012. “Status of Facilities for Fire Safety in Hotels.” Safety Science50 (7): 1490–94.
71.
SmithV. L.1998. “War and Tourism: An American Ethnography.” Annals of Tourism Research25 (1): 202–27.
72.
SongX.XieZ.2014. “Application of Man-Machine-Environment System Engineering in Coal Mines Safety Management.” Procedia Engineering84 (2): 87–92.
73.
SönmezS. F.GraefeA. R.1998a. “Determining Future Travel Behavior from Past Travel Experience and Perceptions of Risk and Safety.” Journal of Travel Research37 (2): 171–77.
74.
SönmezS.GraefeA.1998b. “Influence of Terrorism Risk on Foreign Tourism Decisions.” Annals of Tourism Research25 (1): 112–44.
75.
StraubD. W.1989. “Validating Instruments in MIS Research.” MIS Quarterly13 (2): 147–69.
76.
TsaurS. H.ChengT. M.HongC. Y.2019. “Exploring Tour Member Misbehavior in Group Package Tours.” Tourism Management71:34–43.
77.
TutuncuOzkan. 2017. “Investigating the Accessibility Factors Affecting Hotel Satisfaction of People with Physical Disabilities.” International Journal of Hospitality Management65:29–36.
78.
TyagiA.DharR. L.SharmaJ.2016. “Police Culture, Tourists and Destinations: A Study of Uttarakhand, India.” Tourism Management52:563–73.
79.
UNWTO (United Nations World Tourism Organization). 2018. UNWTO Tourism Highlights 2018 Edition. Madrid, Spain: UN World Tourism Organization.
80.
UtzS.SchultzF.GlockaS.2013. “Crisis Communication Online: How Medium, Crisis Type and Emotions Affected Public Reactions in the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster.” Public Relations Review39 (1): 40–46.
81.
WangK. C.HsiehA. T.ChouS. H.LinY. S.2007. “GPTCCC: An Instrument for Measuring Group Package Tour Service.” Tourism Management28 (2): 361–76.
82.
WangK.-C.JaoP. C.ChanH.-C.ChungC.-H.2010. “Group Package Tour Leader’s Intrinsic Risks.” Annals of Tourism Research37 (1): 154–79.
83.
WeberE. U.JohnsonE. J.2009. “Decisions under Uncertainty: Psychological, Economic, and Neuroeconomic Explanations of Risk Preference.” In Neuroeconomics: Decision Making and the Brain, edited by GlimcherP. W.CamererC. F.FehrE.PoldrackR. A., 127–44. London: Academic Press.
84.
WildavskyA.DakeK.1990. “Theories of Risk Perception: Who Fears What and Why?” Daedalus119 (4): 41–60.
85.
WilksJ.WatsonB.FaulksI. J.1999. “International Tourists and Road Safety in Australia: Developing a National Research and Management Programme.” Tourism Management20 (5): 645–54.
86.
WilliamsA. M.BalážV.2013. “Tourism, Risk Tolerance and Competences: Travel Organization and Tourism Hazards.” Tourism Management35:209–21.
87.
WoosnamK. M.ShaferC. S.ScottD.TimothyD. J.2015. “Tourists’ Perceived Safety through Emotional Solidarity with Residents in Two Mexico–United States Border Regions.” Tourism Management46:263–73.
88.
XieC.ZhangJ.ChenY.MorrisonA. M.LinZ.2020. “Measuring Hotel Employee Perceived Job Risk: Dimensions and Scale Development.” International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management32 (2): 730–48.
89.
YukselA.2004. “Shopping Experience Evaluation: A Case of Domestic and International Visitors.” Tourism Management25 (6): 751–59.
