Surveys are the main instrument of data collection in empirical tourism research. The quality of the collected data depends on the quality of survey questions asked. This paper provides theory- and evidence-based guidance on designing good survey questions to increase the validity of findings resulting from survey research in tourism.
AakerD. A. (1991). Managing Brand Equity: Capitalizing on the Value of the Brand Name. New York: Free Press.
2.
AlbaumG. (1997). “The Likert Scale Revisited: An Alternative Version.” Journal of the Market Research Society, 39 (2): 331-48.
3.
AlbaumG.RosterC.YuJ. H.RogersR. D. (2007). “Simple Rating Scale Formats.” International Journal of Market Research, 49 (5): 633-50.
4.
BagozziR. P. (2011). “Measurement and Meaning in Information Systems and Organizational Research: Methodological and Philosophical Foundations.” MIS Quarterly, 35 (2): 261-92.
5.
BednellD. H. B.ShawM. (2003). “Changing Response Rates in Australian Market Research.” Australasian Journal of Market Research, 11 (1): 31-41.
6.
BendigA. W. (1954). “Reliability and the Number of Rating Scale Categories.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 38 (1): 38-40.
7.
BergkvistL.RossiterJ. R. (2007). “The Predictive Validity of Multiple-Item versus Single-Item Measures of the Same Constructs.” Journal of Marketing Research, 44 (2): 175-84.
8.
BergkvistL.RossiterJ. R. (2009). “Tailor-Made Single-Item Measures of Doubly Concrete Constructs.” International Journal of Advertising, 28 (4): 607-21.
9.
BojanicD. C.WarnickR. B. (2012). “The Role of Purchase Decision Involvement in a Special Event.” Journal of Travel Research, 51 (3): 357-66.
10.
CantrilH. (1940). Gauging Public Opinion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
11.
ChangL. (1994). “A Psychometric Evaluation of Four-Point and Six-Point Likert-Type Scales in Relation to Reliability and Validity.” Applied Psychological Measurement, 18: 205-215.
12.
ChoiS.LehtoX. Y.MorrisonA. M.JangS. (2012). “Structure of Travel Planning Processes and Information Use Patterns.” Journal of Travel Research, 51 (1): 26-40.
13.
ChurchillG. A.Jr.(1979). “A Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing Constructs.” Journal of Marketing Research, 16: 64-73.
14.
ChurchillG. A.Jr.(1998). “Measurement in Marketing: Time to Refocus?” In Paul D. Converse Symposium, edited by HessJames D.MonroeKent B.Chicago: American Marketing Association, 25-41.
15.
ConverseJ. M.PresserS. (1986). Survey Questions—Handicrafting the Standardized Questionnaire. Sage series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, Number 63. Newbury Park: Sage.
16.
CronbachL. J. (1950). “Further Evidence on Response Sets and Test Design.” Educational and Psychological Measurement, 10: 3-31.
17.
CunninghamW. H.CunninghamI. C. M.GreenR. T. (1977). “The Ipsative Process to Reduce Response Set Bias.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 41 (3): 379-84.
18.
Dall’Olmo RileyF.EhrenbergA. S. C.CastleberryS. B.BarwiseT. P.BarnardN. R. (1997). “The Variability of Attitudinal Repeat-Rates.” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 14 (5): 437-50.
19.
DelavandeA.RohwedderS. (2008). “Eliciting Subjective Probabilities in Internet Surveys.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 72 (5): 866-91.
20.
DolnicarS. (2003). Simplifying Three-Way Questionnaires—Do the Advantages of Binary Answer Categories Compensate for the Loss of Information?ANZMAC CD Proceedings.
21.
DolnicarS.GrünB. (2013). “Validly Measuring Destination Image in Survey Studies.” Journal of Travel Research, 52 (1): 3-12.
22.
DolnicarS.GrünB. (2007a). “How Constrained a Response: A Comparison of Binary, Ordinal and Metric Answer Formats.” Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 14: 108-22.
23.
DolnicarS.GrünB. (2007b). “User-Friendliness of Answer Formats—An Empirical Comparison.” Australasian Journal of Market & Social Research, 15 (1): 19-28.
24.
DolnicarS.GrünB. (2007c). “Assessing Analytical Robustness in Cross-Cultural Comparisons.” International Journal of Tourism, Culture, and Hospitality Research, 1 (2): 140-60.
25.
DolnicarS.GrünB. (2007d). “Question Stability in Brand Image Measurement—Comparing Alternative Answer Formats and Accounting for Heterogeneity in Descriptive Models.” Australasian Marketing Journal, 15 (2): 26-41.
26.
DolnicarS.GrünB. (2009). “Does One Size Fit All? The Suitability of Answer Formats for Different Constructs Measured.” Australasian Marketing Journal, 17 (1): 58-64.
27.
DolnicarS.GrünB. (Forthcoming). “Including Don’t Know Answer Options in Brand Image Surveys Improves Data Quality.” International Journal of Market Research.
28.
DolnicarS.GrünB.LeischF. (2011). “Quick, Simple and Reliable: Forced Binary Survey Questions.” International Journal of Market Research, 53 (2): 231-52.
29.
DolnicarS.LaesserC.MatusK. (2009). “Online Versus Paper—Format Effects in Tourism Surveys.” Journal of Travel Research, 47 (3): 295-316.
30.
DolnicarS.RossiterJ. R. (2008). “The Low Stability of Brand-Attribute Associations Is Partly Due to Measurement Factors.” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 25 (2): 104-8.
31.
DolnicarS.GrünB.YanamandramV. (Forthcoming). “New Ways of Asking Survey Questions—More Fun, More Valid Data.” Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing.
32.
DolnicarS.RossiterJ. R.GrünB. (2012). “Pick-Any Measures Contaminate Brand Image Studies.” International Journal of Market Research, 54 (6): 821-34.
33.
DriesenerC.RomaniukJ. (2006). “Comparing Methods of Brand Image Measurement.” International Journal of Market Research, 48 (6): 681-98.
34.
DroletA. L.MorrisonD. G. (2001). “Do We Really Need Multiple-Item Measures in Service Research?” Journal of Service Research, 3 (3): 196-204.
35.
FinnR. H. (1972). “Effects of Some Variations in Rating Scale Characteristics on the Means and Reliabilities of Ratings.” Educational and Psychological Measurement, 32 (2): 255-65.
36.
GarlandR. (1991). “The Mid-Point on a Rating Scale: Is It Desirable?” Marketing Bulletin, 2: 66-70.
37.
GilljamM.GranbergD. (1993). “Should We Take Don’t Know for an Answer?” Public Opinion Quarterly, 57:348-57.
38.
GrassiM.NuceraA.ZanolinE.OmenaasE.AntoJ. M.LeynaertB. (2007). “Performance Comparison of Likert and Binary Formats of SF-36 Version 1.6 across ECRHS II Adult Populations.” Value in Health, 10 (6): 478-88.
39.
GreenP. E.RaoV. R. (1970). “Rating Scales and Information Recovery—How Many Scales and Response Categories to Use?” Journal of Marketing, 34: 33-39.
40.
GreenleafE. A. (1992a). “Improving Rating-Scale Measures by Detecting and Correcting Bias Components in Some Response Styles.” Journal of Marketing Research, 29 (2): 176-88.
41.
GreenleafE. A. (1992b). “Measuring Extreme Response Style.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 56 (3): 328-51.
42.
HancockG. R.KlockarsA. J. (1991). “The Effect of Scale Manipulations on Validity: Targeting Frequency Rating Scales for Anticipated Performance Levels.” Applied Ergonomics, 22 (3): 147-54.
43.
HardieT.KosomitisN. (2005). The F Word in Market Research: High Impact Public Relations in the 21st Century. CD Proceedings from the AMSRS Conference 2005: Impact. Sydney: Australian Market & Social Research Society.
44.
HawkinsD. I.ConeyK. A. (1981). “Uninformed Response Error in Survey Research.” Journal of Marketing Research, 18 (3): 370-74.
45.
HeideM.GronhaugK. (1992). “The Impact of Response Styles in Surveys: A Stimulation Study.” Journal of the Market Research Society, 34 (3): 215-30.
46.
HipplerH. J.SchwarzN. (1989). “‘No Opinion’-Filters: A Cognitive Perspective.” International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 1 (1): 77-87.
47.
HorngJ.-S.LiuC.-H.ChouH.-Y.TsaiC.-Y. (2012). “Understanding the Impact of Culinary Brand Equity and Destination Familiarity on Travel Intentions.” Tourism Management, 33 (4): 815-24.
48.
HsuC. H. C.OhH.AssafA. G. (2012). “A Customer-Based Brand Equity Model for Upscale Hotels.” Journal of Travel Research, 51 (1): 81-93.
49.
JacobyJ. (1978). “Consumer Research: How Valid and Useful Are All Our Consumer Behaviour Research Findings? A State of the Art Review.” Journal of Marketing, 42 (2): 87-95.
50.
JacobyJ.MatellM. S. (1971). “Three-Point Likert Scales Are Good Enough.” Journal of Marketing Research, 8: 495-500.
51.
JohnsonM. D.LehmannD. R.HorneD. R. (1990). “The Effects of Fatigue on Judgments of Interproduct Similarity.” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 7 (1): 35-43.
52.
JonesR. R. (1968). Differences in Response Consistency and Subjects’ Preferences for Three Personality Inventory Response Formats. Proceedings of the 76th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, 247-48.
53.
KahaneH. (1982). Logic and Philosophy: A Modern Introduction. 4th edition.Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
54.
KampenJ.SwyngedouwM. (2000). “The Ordinal Controversy Revisited.” Quality and Quantity, 34 (1): 87-102.
55.
KollatD. T.BlackwellR. D.EngelJ. E. (1972). “The Current Status of Consumer Behaviour Research: Development during the 1968-1972 Period.” In Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Conference of the Association of Consumer Research, edited by VenkatesanM., pp. 576-84.
56.
KomoritaS. S. (1963). “Attitude Content, Intensity, and the Neutral Point on a Likert Scale.” Journal of Social Psychology, 61: 327-34.
57.
KomoritaS. S.GrahamW. K. (1965). “Number of Scale Points and the Reliability of Scales.” Educational and Psychological Measurement, 25 (4): 987-95.
58.
KrosnickJ. A. (1991). “Response Strategies for Coping with the Cognitive Demands of Attitude Measures in Surveys.” Applied Cognitive Psychology, 5: 213-36.
59.
KrosnickJ. A. (1999). “Survey Research.” Annual Review of Psychology, 50: 537-67.
60.
KrosnickJ. A.BerentM. K. (1993). “Comparisons of Party Identification and Policy Preferences: The Impact of Survey Question Format.” American Journal of Political Science, 37 (3): 941-64.
61.
LeeJ. A.SoutarG. N.LouviereJ.DalyT. M. (2006). An Examination of the Relationship between Values and Holiday Benefits across Cultures Using Ratings Scales and Best-Worst Scaling. ANZMAC CD Proceedings.
62.
LehmannD. R.HulbertJ. (1972). “Are Three Point Scales Always Good Enough?” Journal of Marketing Research, 9 (4): 444-46.
63.
LikertR. (1932). “A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes.” Archives of Psychology, 36 (2): 44-53.
64.
LokenB.PirieP.VirnigK. A.HinkleR. L.SalmonC. T. (1987). “The Use of 0–10 Scales in Telephone Surveys.” Journal of the Market Research Society, 29 (3): 353-62.
65.
MartinW. S. (1973). “The Effects of Scaling on the Correlation Coefficient: A Test of Validity.” Journal of Marketing Research, 10 (3): 316-18.
66.
MartinW. S. (1978). “Effects of Scaling on the Correlation Coefficient: Additional Considerations.” Journal of Marketing Research, 15 (2): 304-8.
67.
MartinW. S.FruchterB.MathisW. J. (1974). “An Investigation of the Effect of the Number of Scale Intervals on Principal Components Factor Analysis.” Educational and Psychological Measurement, 34: 537-45.
68.
MatellM. S.JacobyJ. (1971). “Is There an Optimal Number of Alternatives for Likert Scale Items? Study I: Reliability and Validity.” Educational and Psychological Measurement, 31: 657-74.
69.
NamJ.EkinciYukselWhyattG. (2011). “Brand Equity, Brand Loyalty and Consumer Satisfaction.” Annals of Tourism Research, 38 (3): 1009-30.
70.
NunnallyJ. C. (1967). Psychometric Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
71.
NunnallyJ. C. (1978). Psychometric Theory. 3rd edition.New York: McGraw-Hill.
72.
NunnallyJ. C. (1970). Introduction to Psychological Measurement. New York: McGraw-Hill.
73.
OasterT. R. F. (1989). “Number of Alternatives per Choice Point and Stability of Likert-Type Scales.” Perceptual and Motor Skills, 68: 549-50.
74.
OliverR. L. (1999). “Whence Consumer Loyalty?” Journal of Marketing, 63:33-44.
75.
PaulhusD. L. (1991). “Measurement and Control of Response Bias.” In Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes, edited by RobinsonJ. P.ShaverP. R.WrightsmanL. S.San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 17-59.
76.
PayneS. L. (1980). The Art of Asking Questions, 13th edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
77.
PeabodyD. (1962). “Two Components in Bipolar Scales: Direction and Extremeness.” Psychological Review, 69 (2): 65-73.
78.
PercyL. (1976). “An Argument in Support of Ordinary Factor Analysis of Dichotomous Variables.” In Advances in Consumer Research, edited by AndersonB.Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, pp. 143-48.
79.
PetersD. L.McCormickE. J. (1966). “Comparative Reliability of Numerically Anchored versus Job-Task Anchored Rating Scales.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 50 (1): 92-96.
80.
PoeG. S.SeemanI.McLaughlinJ.MehlE.DietzM. (1988). “Don’t Know Boxes in Factual Questions in a Mail Questionnaire.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 52: 212-22.
81.
PoynterR. (2010). The Handbook of Online and Social Media Research. Tools and Techniques for Market Researchers. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
82.
PrayagG.RyanC. (2012). “Antecedents of Tourists’ loyalty to Mauritius: the role and influence of destination image, place attachment, personal involvement and satisfaction.” Journal of Travel Research, 51(3): 342-356.
83.
PrestonC. C.ColmanA. M. (2000). “Optimal Number of Response Categories in Rating Scales: Reliability, Validity, Discriminating Power, and Respondent Preferences.” Acta Psychologica, 104: 1-15.
84.
PulestonJ.SleepD. (2008). Measuring the Value of Respondent Engagement: Innovative Techniques to Improve Panel Quality, ESOMAR Congress2008.
85.
RapoportR. B. (1982). “Sex Differences in Attitude Expression: A Generational Explanation.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 46: 86-96.
86.
ReidJ.MordenM.ReidA. (2007). “Maximizing Respondents Engagement.” In Proceedings of the ESOMAR Congress 2007. Amsterdam: Esomar.
87.
RemingtonM.TyrerP. J.Newson-SmithJ.CicchettiD. V. (1979). “Comparative Reliability of Categorical and Analogue Rating Scales in the Assessment of Psychiatric Symptomatology.” Psychological Medicine, 9: 765-70.
88.
RossiterJ. R. (2002). “The C-OAR-SE Procedure for Scale Development in Marketing.” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 19 (4): 305-35.
89.
RossiterJ. R. (2011). Measurement for the Social Sciences: The C-OAR-SE Method and Why It Must Replace Psychometrics. New York: Springer.
90.
RossiterJ. R.BergkvistL. (2009). “Tailor-Made Single-Item Measures of Doubly Concrete Constructs.” International Journal of Advertising, 28 (4): 607-21.
91.
RossiterJ. R.DolnicarS.GrünB. (2010). “The LFFB Comparative Judgment Measure of Brand Attribute Beliefs.”Working Paper, Faculty of Commerce, University of Wollongong, Australia.
92.
RungieC.LaurentG.Dall’Olmo RileyF.Riley MorrisonD. G.RoyT. (2005). “Measuring and Modeling the (Limited) Reliability of Free Choice Attitude Questions.” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 22 (3): 309-18.
93.
RyanC.GarlandR. (1999). “The Use of a Specific Non-response Option on Likert-Type Scales.” Tourism Management, 20: 107-13.
94.
SchumanH.PresserS. (1981). Questions and Answers in Attitude Surveys: Experiments on Question Form, Wording, and Context. New York: Academic Press.
SymondsP. M. (1924). “On the Loss of Reliability in Ratings Due to Coarseness of the Scale.” Journal of Experimental Psychology, 7: 456-61.
98.
Van de VijverF. J. R.PoortingaY. H. (2002). “On the Study of Culture in Developmental Science.” Human Development, 45 (4): 246-56.
99.
Van der EijkC. (2001). “Measuring Agreement in Ordered Rating Scales.” Quality & Quantity, 35: 325-41.
100.
VriensM.WedelM.SandorZ. (2001). “Split-Questionnaire Designs: A New Tool in Survey Design and Panel Management.” Marketing Research, 13 (1): 14-19.
101.
WatsonD. (1992). “Correcting for Acquiescent Response Bias in the Absence of a Balanced Scale: An Application to Class Consciousness.” Sociological Methods & Research, 21 (1): 52-88.
102.
Welkenhuysen-GybelsJ.BillietJ.CambréB. (2003). “Adjustment for Acquiescence in the Assessment of the Construct Equivalence of Likert-Type Score Items.” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34 (6): 702-22.
103.
WorcesterR. M.BurnsT. R. (1975). “A Statistical Examination of the Relative Precision of Verbal Scales.” Journal of the Market Research Society, 17 (3): 181-97.
104.
YuJ. H.AlbaumG.SwensonM. (2003). “Is a Central Tendency Error Inherent in the Use of Semantic Differential Scales in Different Cultures?” International Journal of Market Research, 45 (2): 213-28.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
