Critical Discourse Analysis of 206 South Korean peer-reviewed academic journal publications and interviews with managers and volunteers of ecotourism sites extracted from these articles indicate the existence of a distinct, endogenously informed South Korean construct of ecotourism. With regard to the three core criteria of ecotourism, “nature-based” attractions reflect a unity of human and physical environment, profoundly influenced by Confucian, Zen Buddhist, and Taoist philosophy where everything in the universe is one interrelated entity. Secondly, the “education” construct reflects the Confucian concept of self-cultivation for worldly development. Finally, “sustainability” is the Confucian idea of creative transformation for harmony. The South Korean construct of nature is the underlying central principle for all three criteria, leading to important theoretical and managerial implications.
AhnD. M. (1998). “Ecotourism Program Design for Kwanghwa Tidal Flats” (in Korean). Journal of Agricultural Science Research, 2: 261-65.
2.
BernoT.ButlerR. (1996). “Cross-cultural Research Methods: Content or Context? A Cook Islands Example. In Tourism and Indigenous Peoples, edited by ButlerR.Hinch.T.London: International Thomson Business Press, pp. 376-95.
3.
BlameyR. K. (2001). “Principles of Ecotourism.” In Encyclopaedia of Ecotourism, edited by WeaverD. B.Wallingford, UK: CABI, pp. 5-22.
4.
BoeijeH. R. (2002). “A Purposeful Approach to the Constant Comparative Method in the Analysis of Qualitative Interview.” Quality and Quantity, 36: 391-409.
BuckleyR.CaterC.LinshengZ.ChenT. (2008). “SHENGTAI LUYOU: Cross-Cultural Comparison in Ecotourism.” Annals of Tourism Research, 35 (4): 945-68.
7.
ByunJ. M. (2000). “The Directions on Ecotourism Development in Linking Rural Mountain Fishing Villages Together Led by Community Dwellers” (in Korean). Journal of Agricultural Development, 7 (1): 209-46.
8.
CaterE. (2006). “Ecotourism as a Western Construct.” Journal of Ecotourism, 5 (1 and 2): 23-39.
9.
ChiltonP.SchaffnerC. (1997). “Discourse and Politics.” In Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction, Vol. 1, edited by van DijkT. A.London: Sage.
10.
ChoJ.-H.KimS.-B.KimY.-B. (2004). “The Relationship between Tourist’s Environmental Consciouness and Ecotourism Attitude” (in Korean). Journal of the Environmental Sciences, 13 (1): 1-9.
11.
ChoiJ. W. (2000). “The Characteristics and Effects of Ecotourism” (in Korean). Journal of Geography, 20: 171-87.
12.
ChoiY.-C.KimJ.-G.ChoiJ.-Y.KimW.-T.ParkH.-C.HwangS.-J.JeongG.-S. (2009). “Survey on Insect Fauna and Role of Insect Gardens for Ecotourism” (in Korean). Journal of Applied Entomology (in Korea), 48 (4): 453-57.
13.
ChooH.JamalT. (2009). “Tourism on Organic Farms in South Korea: A New Form of Ecotourism?” Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17 (4): 431-54.
14.
ChungB.-W.JeonY.-C. (1999). “A Study on Promotion of Ecology Cultural Tourism in the Region of Yongwol” (in Korean). Journal of the Kangwon Provincial University, 2: 127-40.
FennellD. (2003). Ecotourism: An Introduction. London: Routledge.
17.
GlaserB. G.StraussA. L. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago: Aldine.
18.
GoldmanR. (1995). “Moral Leadership in Society: Some Parallels between the Confucian ‘Noble Man’ and the Jewish Zaddik.” Philosophy East and West, 45 (3): 329-65.
19.
GraefV. S. (1990). “The Foundations of Ecology in Zen Buddhism.” Religious Education, 85 (1): 42-48.
20.
GwakH. G.KimN. O.KimJ. I. (2008). “Study on Developing Ecological Tourism Program in Ocean Resources: Case Study on Tideland in Jeonam Province and Marine Village” (in Korean). Korea Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 22 (2): 227-43.
21.
HanB. H.ChoiJ. W.YooK. J.NohT. W. (2010). “A Study on Eco Trail Planning in Bukhansan National Park.” Journal for Korean Society of Environment and Biology, 20 (1): 193-97.
22.
HartzP. R. (1993). Taoism: World Religions. New York: Facts on Life.
23.
HaynesJ. (2009). Routledge Handbook of Religion and Politics. New York: Routledge.
24.
HongS. K.KimJ. E. (2007). “Village Forests of Estuary in West Sea: Forested Landscape Management for Conserving Resort Area” (in Korean). Journal of the Island Culture, 29: 441-73.
25.
HuhY. K. “Korean 10 ecotourism destinations.” Maeil Daily, April19, 2011.
26.
HwangS.-N.LeeC.ChenH.-J. (2005). “The Relationship among Tourists’ Involvement, Place Attachment and Interpretation Satisfaction in Taiwan’s National Parks.” Tourism Management, 26 (1): 143-56.
27.
JamesS. P. (2003). “Zen Buddhism and the Intrinsic Value of Nature.” Contemporary Buddhism, 4 (2): 143-57.
28.
JamesS. P. (2004). Zen Buddhism and Environmental Ethics. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
29.
JeonY. G. (2008). “The Restoration and Application of Cultural and Ecological Environments of Daegu City” (in Korean). Journal of the Korean Association of Regional Geography, 14 (3): 189-98.
30.
JeongG.-H.RohY.-H.LeeS.-H. (2007). “The Case of Bonghwa Pine Mushroom Festival” (in Korean). Journal of People, Vegetation and Environment, 10 (3): 105-11.
31.
JinY.-J. (2010). “Participant’s Motivation, Preference and Satisfaction on Temple-Stay and Searching for Strategies to link Programs between Ecology Oriented Temple-Stay and Rural Tourism” (in Korean). Journal of Tourism Research, 25 (4): 353-76.
32.
JungH. J. (2006). “A Prospect of Ecotourism as a Sustainable Future Strategy for Jeju Special Self-Governing Province” (in Korean). Journal of the Korean Urban Geographic Society, 9 (3): 57-68.
33.
KimC. K. (1997). “A Study on Environmental Factors and Sustainability for Tourism Developments.” Collection of Studies (Gyungju Junioe College, Koera), 11: 135-49.
34.
KimD. H.JangB. K. (1998). “The Quality of Life of the Residents in Namhae-gun” (in Korean). Journal of Social Science Research, 16 (3): 197-233.
35.
KimH. O. (1998). “A Study on the Actual Circumstance and Activation of Korean Ecotourism” (in Korean). Journal of Social Science Studies, 17: 579-619.
36.
KimJ. W. (2010). “A Study on Sunchon Rural Tourism Promotion Strategy with Particular Attention to Ecotourism” (in Korean). Journal of Rural Tourism Research, 17 (3): 139-62.
37.
KimK. S.LeeD. S.KimN. O. (2003). “A Study on the Human Ecology of the Inhabitants for the Tourism Development in Dangsado” (in Korean). Journal of Hotel and Tourism Research, 5 (3): 60-88.
38.
KimY. G.ChoJ. H. (1998). “A Survey on the Disposition of Ecotourism” (in Korean). Korean Journal of Environment And Ecotourism, 12 (2): 156-62.
39.
KlausW. (2000). “Tourists’ Perceptions towards and Satisfaction with Service Quality in the Cross-Cultural Service Encounter: Implications for Hospitality and Tourism Management.” Managing Service Quality, 10 (6): 397-409.
KoS. I. (2002). “A Study on the Introduction of Ecotourism in Mt. Halla National Park” (in Korean). Journal of Travel Research of Korea, 15: 111-38.
42.
KollerV. (2005). “Critical Discourse Analysis and Social Cognition: Evidence from Business Media Discourse.” Discourse and Society, 16 (2): 199-224.
43.
LafleurW. (2000). “Enlightenment for Plants and Trees.” In Dharma Rain: Sources of Buddhist Environmentalism, edited by KazaS.KraftK.Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications, pp. 109-16.
44.
LaFleurW. R. (1989). “Saigyo and the Buddhist Value of Nature.” In Nature in Asian Traditions of Thought: Essays in Environmental Philosophy, edited by CallicottB.AmesR. T.Albany, NY: SUNY Press, pp. 183-209.
45.
LeeB. (1993). “A Study on Ecotourism with Changing Trends in Marketing” (in Korean). Collection of Studies (Sorabol University, Korea), 7: 43-70.
46.
LeeC.-K.LeeJ.-H.KimT.-K.MjeldeJ. (2010). “Preferences and Willingness to Pay for Bird-Watching Tour and Interpretive Services using a Choice Experiment.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18 (5): 695-708.
47.
LeeC. K. (2005). “Valuation of Eco-tourism Resources for DMZ using a Contingent Valuation Method: International Comparison of Values.” Journal of Korean Academy of Leisure, 17 (4): 247-59.
48.
LeeD.-J.LeeW.-K. (2006). “A Study on Infrastructure Improvement Project of Eco and Green Tourism Villages” (in Korean). Journal of Rural Architecture, 8 (3): 17-26.
49.
LemelinR. (2007). “Finding Beauty in the Dragon: The Role of Dragonfies in Recreation and Tourism.” Journal of Ecotourism, 6 (2): 139-45.
50.
LimJ. W. (1994). “Developing Ecotourism for Environemntal Conservation” (in Korean). Journal of Tourism Research, 8 (4): 247-71.
51.
LitvinS. W.CrottsJ. C.HefnerF. L. (2004). “Cross-Cultural Tourist Behaviour: A Replication and Extension Involving Hofstede’s Uncertainty Avoidance Dimension.” International Journal of Tourism Research, 6 (1), 29-37.
52.
MasudaT.GonzalezR.KwanL.NisbettR. (2008). “Cultural and Aesthetic Preference: Comparing the Attention to Context of East Asians and Americans.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34 (9): 1260-75.
MoteF. (1971). Intellectual Foundations of China. New York: Knopf.
55.
NohW. H. (1998). “Activity of Ecotourism and Cultural Geography Tourism in Chol-Won” (in Korean). Journal of Geography Education (Seoul National University), 39 (1): 116-37.
56.
OhS.LeeH.LeeI. (2009). “The Relation between Tourist’s Recognition and the Types of Tourist’s Activities for Ecological Implication of Tidal Flats: Focus on Tourist’s Recognition for Eco-tourism of Anmeondo” (in Korean). Journal of International Tourism Industry Research, 2 (1): 103-26.
57.
OhS. K. (2004). “Study of Travel Agency’s Product Development for Ecological Sightseeing” (in Korean). Journal of the Korean Society of Women’s Culture, 13: 151-68.
58.
O’ReillyB. (1990). Green Mountains: Cullenbenbon; Over the Hills. Sydney: Envirobook.
59.
PalmerC. (2001). “Ethnography: A Research Method in Practice.” International Journal of Tourism Research, 3 (4): 301-12.
60.
PalmerC. (2005). “An Ethnography of Englishness: Experiencing Identity through Tourism.” Annals of Tourism Research, 32 (1): 7-27.
61.
ParkJ. M. (1998). “Investigation on Resources for Ecotourism around Byeonsanbando National Park: Based on Natural Resources” (in Korean). Journal of Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture, 16 (1): 1-14.
62.
ParkJ. M. (2003). “Resources and Management Situation for Ecotourism around Abandoned Copper Mine Area of Ashio, Japan” (in Korean and Abstract English). Korean Journal of Environmental Ecology, 2003 (1): 22-26.
63.
ParkS. H. (2000). “A Review on the Concept of Ecotourism” (in Korean). Tourism Research, 14 (1): 67-89.
64.
ParkS. H.KimY. S. (2001). “The Attitude of Korean Overseas Travelers towards Eco-tourism” (in Korean). Journal of the Korean Academy of Tourism Geographies, 15: 91-114.
65.
ParkS. H.OhS. H. (2009). “A Review on the Basic Development Plans of Mountainy Eco-Village” (in Korean). Journal of Agriculture Tourism, 16 (3): 15-39.
66.
RaymondE. M.HallC. M. (2008). “The Development of Cross-Cultural (Mis)Understanding through Volunteer Tourism.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16 (5), 530-43.
67.
RISS. (2011). About RISS. Research Information Sharing Service. http://www.riss.kr/AboutRiss.do (accessed November 5, 2011).
68.
RomerilM. (1985). “Tourism and the Environment—Towards a Symbiotic Relationship.” International Journal Environmental Studies, 25 (4): 215-18.
69.
SabelliH. (1998). “The Union of Opposites: From Taoism to Process Theory.” Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 15 (5): 429-41.
SasoM. (1972). Taoism and the Rite of Cosmic Renewal. Pullman: Washington State University Press.
72.
ShinK. R. (2001). “Developing Perspectives on Korean Nursing Theory: The Influences of Taoism.” Nursing Science Quarterly, 14 (4): 346-53.
73.
SmithV. (ed.). (1989). Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism. 2nd edition.Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
74.
SofieldT.LiF. M. S. (1998). “Tourism Development and Cultural Policies in China.” Annals of Tourism Research, 25 (2): 362-92.
75.
SofieldT.LiF. M. S. (2007). “China: Ecotourism and Cultural Tourism, Harmony or Dissonance?” In Critical Issues in Ecotourism: Understanding a Complex Tourism Phenomenon, edited by Highham.J.Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 368-85.
76.
SparksB.PanG. (2009). “Chinese Outbound Tourists: Understanding their Attitudes, Constraints and Use of Information Sources.” Tourism Management, 30 (4): 483-94.
77.
StepaniantsM. (2002). “Chinese Tradition: Taoism” (KohanovskayaR. Trans.). In Introduction to Eastern Thought, edited by BehuniakJ.Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, pp. 186-96.
78.
StoneM.WallG. (2004). “Ecotourism and Community Development: Case Studies from Hainan, China.” Environmental Management, 33 (1): 12-24.
79.
TaoC.-H.EaglesP.SmithS. (2004). “Profiling Taiwanese Ecotourists Using a Self-Definition Approach.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 12 (2): 149-68.
80.
ThichN. H. (1988). The Sun My Heart: Form Mindfullness to Insight Contemplation. London: Rider.
81.
Tourism Australia. (2003). China: ADS Visitor Experience Study 2003. Tourism Australia. www.tourism.australia.com (accessed August 1, 2008).
82.
TuW.-M. (1985). Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation. Albany: State University of New York Press.
83.
TuckerM. E. (1991). “The Relevance of Chinese Neo-Confucianism for the Reverence of Nature.” Environmental History Review, 15 (2): 55-69.
84.
TuckerM. E. (1998). “Religious Dimensions of Confucianism: Cosmology and Cultivation.” Philosophy East and West, 48 (1): 5-45.
85.
Van DijkT. A. (2003). “Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis.” Discourse and Society, 4 (2): 249-83.
86.
WangS.-S.HeoJ.-M.YamadaN.HwangS.-T. (2009). “Comparison of Ecotourism Policies and Implications for China’s Ecotourism Development.” Journal of China Tourism Research, 5 (3): 259-72.
87.
WCED. (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford: World Commission on Environment and Development.
WeaverD. B. (2002). “Asian Ecotourism: Patterns and Themes.” Tourism Geographies, 4 (2): 153-72.
90.
WeaverD. B. (2011). “Organic, Incremental and Induced Paths to Sustainable Mass Tourism Convergence.” Tourism Management, 33 (5): 1030-37.
91.
WeaverD. B.LawtonL. J. (2007). “Twenty Years On: The State of Contemporary Ecotourism Research.” Tourism Management, 28 (5): 1168-79.
92.
WenY.XimingX. (2008). “The Differences in Ecotourism between China and the West.” Current Issues in Tourism, 11 (6): 567-86.
93.
WightP. (2001). “Ecotourists: Not a Homogeneous Market Segment.” In The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism, edited by Weaver.D. B.Wallingford, UK: CABI, pp. 37-62.
94.
WongB.LoyH.-C. (2001). “The Confucian Gentleman and the Limits of Ethical Change.” Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 28 (3): 209-34.
95.
WoodsB.MoscardoG. (1998). “Understanding Australian, Japanese, and Taiwanese Ecotourists in the Pacific Rim Region.” Pacific Tourism Review, 1 (4): 329-39.
96.
WuB.CaiL. (2006). “Spatial Modelling: Suburban Leisure in Shanghai.” Annals of Tourism Research, 33 (1): 179-98.
97.
YiS. (1985). “The Influence of Neo-Confucianism on Education and Civil Service Examination System in Fourteenth and Fifteenth Century Korea.” In The Rise of Neo-Confucianism in Korea, edited by De BarryW.Housh.J.New York: Columbia University Press.
98.
YunH. Y.KimD. S. (2008). “A Study on a Residents’ Consciousness and a Attitude toward Participation for Development of Ecotourism in a Mountain Villages—Focused on the Mt. Ungil on Namyangju and Hwangdun-ri in Wonju” (in Korean). Journal of Korean Ecology, 22 (3): 280-88.
99.
YunH.-Y.SungJ. K. (2004). “The Developmental Strategy of Forest-Ecotourism” (in Korean). Journal of Korean Academy of Forest Leisure, 8 (3): 1-9.
