A coherent body of research recognizes the role of emotion in various aspects of consumer behavior. However, while a number of studies exist on the consequences of emotion, empirical investigations into its determinants in tourism have received lesser attention. Building on well-established cognitive appraisal theories of emotion, this study investigates the antecedents of tourists’ emotional responses toward destinations. Canonical correlation analysis supports an appraisal model of emotion in the context of tourist destinations. Results indicate that appraisals of pleasantness, goal congruence, and internal self-compatibility are the main determinants of joy, love, and positive surprise. Overall, the findings offer strategic marketing implications for tourist destinations.
AhoS. K. (2001). “Towards a General Theory of Touristic Experiences: Modelling Experience Process in Tourism.” Tourism Review, 56 (3/4): 33-37.
2.
AhuviaA. C. (2005). “Beyond the Extended Self: Love Objects and Consumer’s Identity Narratives.” Journal of Consumer Research, 32 (1): 171-84.
3.
AlbertN.MerunkaD.Valette-FlorenceP. (2008). “When Consumers Love Their Brands: Exploring the Concept and Its Dimensions.” Journal of Business Research, 61 (10): 1062-75.
4.
ArmstrongS. J.OvertonT. S. (1977). “Estimating Nonresponse Error in Mail Surveys.” Journal of Marketing Research, 14 (3): 396-402.
5.
ArnoldM. B. (1960). Emotion and Personality. New York: Columbia University Press.
6.
ArnouldE. J.PriceL. L. (1993). “River Magic: Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter.” Journal of Consumer Research, 20 (1): 24-45.
7.
AustinJ. T.VancouverJ. B. (1996). “Goal Constructs in Psychology: Structure, Process and Content.” Psychological Bulletin, 120 (3): 338-75.
BagozziR. P.GopinathM.NyerP. U. (1999). “The Role of Emotions in Marketing.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 27 (2): 184-206.
10.
BeehoA. J.PrenticeR. (1997). “Conceptualizing the Experiences of Heritage Tourists: A Case Study of New Lanark World Heritage Village.” Tourism Management, 18 (2): 75-87.
11.
BeerliA.MenesesG. D.GilS. M. (2007). “Self-Congruity and Destination Choice.” Annals of Tourism Research, 34 (3): 571-87.
12.
BignéJ. E.AndreuL. (2004). “Emotions in Segmentation: An Empirical Study.” Annals of Tourism Research, 31 (3): 682-96.
13.
BoorstinC. (1964). The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in American Society. New York: Harper & Row.
14.
BosmansA.BaumgartnerH. (2005). “Goal-Relevant Emotional Information: When Extraneous Affect Leads to Persuasion and When It Does Not.” Journal of Consumer Research, 32 (3): 424-34.
15.
CarrN. (2002). “The Tourism-Leisure Behavioural Continuum.” Annals of Tourism Research, 29 (4): 972-86.
16.
CarrollB. A.AhuviaA. C. (2006). “Some Antecedents and Outcomes of Brand Love.” Marketing Letters, 17 (2): 79-89.
17.
CarverC. S.ScheierM. F. (1990). “Origins and Functions of Positive and Negative Affect: A Control-Process View.” Psychological Review, 97 (1): 19-35.
18.
CelciR. L.RoseR. L.LeighT. W. (1993). “An Exploration of High-Risk Leisure Consumption through Skydiving.” Journal of Consumer Research, 20 (1): 1-23.
ChuangS. C. (2007). “The Effects of Emotions on the Purchase of Tour Commodities.” Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 22 (1): 1-13.
21.
CohenE. (1979). “A Phenomenology of Tourist Experiences.” Sociology13: 179-201.
22.
CohenJ. B.AreniC. (1991). “Affect and Consumer Behaviour.” In Handbook of Consumer Behaviour, edited by RobertsonS. T.KassarjianH. H.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, pp. 188-240.
23.
CooperJ.FazioR. H. (1984). “A New Look at Dissonance Theory.” In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, edited by BerkowitzL.New York: Academic Press, pp. 229-66.
24.
CurrieR. R. (1997). “A Pleasure-Tourism Behaviors Framework.” Annals of Tourism Research, 24 (4): 884-97.
25.
DalakasV. (2005). “The Effect of Cognitive Appraisals on Emotional Responses during Service Encounters.” Services Marketing Quarterly, 27 (1): 23-41.
26.
DannG. (1977). “Anomie, Ego-Enhancement and Tourism.” Annals of Tourism Research, 4 (4): 184-94.
27.
de RiveraJ.VeretteJ. A.WeinerB. (1989). “Distinguishing Elation, Gladness, and Joy.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57 (6): 1015-23.
28.
DerbaixC.PhamM. T. (1991). “Affective Reactions to Consumption Situations: A Pilot Investigation.” Journal of Economic Psychology, 12 (2): 325-55.
29.
DerbaixC.VanhammeJ. (2003). “Inducing Word-of-Mouth by Eliciting Surprise: A Pilot Investigation.” Journal of Economic Psychology, 24 (1): 99-116.
30.
DillmanD. A. (2007). Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method. 2nd edition.Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
31.
DubéL.MenonK. (2000). “Multiple Roles of Consumption Emotions in Post-Purchase Satisfaction with Extended Service Transactions.” International Journal of Service Industry Management, 11 (3): 287-304.
32.
EllsworthP. C.SchererK. R. (2003), “Appraisal Processes in Emotion.” In Handbook of Affective Sciences, edited by DavidsonR. J.SchererK. R.GoldsmithH. H.New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 572-95.
33.
FarberM. E.HallT. E. (2007) “Emotion and Environment: Visitors’ Extraordinary Experiences along the Dalton Highway in Alaska.” Journal of Leisure Research, 39 (2): 248-70.
34.
FrijdaN. H. (1986). The Emotions. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
35.
FrijdaN. H. (1987). “Emotion, Cognitive Structure and Action Tendency.” Cognition and Emotion, 1: 115-43.
36.
FrijdaN. H. (1993). “Moods, Emotion Episodes and Emotions.” In Handbook of Emotions, edited by LewisM.HavilandJ. M.New York: Guilford, pp. 381-403.
37.
FrijdaN. H.KuipersP.SchureE. (1989). “Relations among Emotion, Appraisal, and Emotional Action Readiness.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57 (2): 212-28.
38.
GilbertD.AbdullahJ. (2004). “Holidaytaking and the Sense of Well-Being.” Annals of Tourism Research, 31 (1): 103-21.
39.
GnothJ. (1997). “Tourism Motivation and Expectation Formation.” Annals of Tourism Research, 24 (2): 283-304.
40.
GoossensC. (2000). “Tourism Information and Pleasure Motivation.” Annals of Tourism Research, 27 (2): 301-21.
41.
GraeffR. (1996). “Image Congruence Effects of Product Evaluation: The Role of Self-Monitoring and Public/Private Consumption.” Psychology & Marketing, 13 (5): 481-99.
42.
GretzelU.FesenmaierD. R.FormicaS.O’LearyJ. T. (2006). “Searching for the Future: Challenges Faced by Destination Marketing Organizations.” Journal of Travel Research, 45 (2): 116-26.
43.
HeH.MukherjeeA. (2007). “I Am, Ergo I Shop: Does Store Image Congruity Explain Shopping Behaviour of Chinese Consumers?” Journal of Marketing Management, 23 (5/6): 443-60.
44.
HeitmannM.LehmannD. R.HerrmannA. (2007). “Choice of Goal Attainment and Decision and Consumption Satisfaction.” Journal of Marketing Research, 44 (2): 234-50.
45.
HensonR. K. (2000). “Demystifying Parametric Analyses: Illustrating Canonical Correlation as the Multivariate General Linear Model.” Multiple Linear Regression Viewpoints26 (1): 11-19.
46.
HidalgoM. C.HernandezB. (2001). “Place Attachment: Conceptual and Empirical Questions.” Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21 (3): 273-81.
47.
HigginsE. T. (1987). “Self-Discrepancy: A Theory Relating Self and Affect.” Psychological Review, 94: 319-40.
48.
HirschmanE.HolbrookM. B. (1982). “Hedonic Consumption: Emerging Concepts, Methods and Propositions.” Journal of Marketing, 46 (3): 92-101.
49.
HongJ. W.ZinkhanG. M. (1995). “Self Concept and Advertising Effectiveness: The Influences of Congruency, Conspicuousness and Response Modes.” Psychology & Marketing, 12 (1): 53-77.
HuffmanC.HoustonM. J. (1993). “Goal-Oriented Experiences and the Development of Knowledge.” Journal of Consumer Research, 20 (2): 190-207.
52.
HughesR.HubyM. (2002). “The Application of Vignettes in Social and Nursing Research.” Journal of Advanced Nursing, 37 (4): 382-86.
53.
HullR. B.HarveyA. (1989). “Explaining the Emotion People Experience in Suburban Parks.” Environment and Behaviour, 21 (3): 323-45.
54.
IzardE. E. (1977). Human Emotions. New York: Plenum.
55.
JacksonM. S.WhiteG. N.SchmiererC. L. (1996). “Tourism Experiences within an Attributional Framework.” Annals of Tourism Research, 23 (4): 798-810.
56.
JamalA.Al-MarriM. (2007). “Exploring the Effect of Self-Image Congruence and Brand Preference on Satisfaction: The Role of Expertise.” Journal of Marketing Management, 23 (7/8): 613-29.
57.
JohnsonA. R.StewartD. W. (2005). “A Reappraisal of the Role of Emotion in Consumer Behavior: Traditional and Contemporary Approaches.” In Review of Marketing Research, edited by MalhotraN. K.Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, pp. 3-33.
58.
KlaarenK. J.HodgesS. D.WilsonT. D. (1994). “The Role of Affective Expectations in Subjective Experience and Decision-Making.” Social Cognition, 12: 77-101.
59.
KleineS. S.KleineR. E.IIIAllenC. T. (1995). “How Is a Possession ‘Me’ or ‘Not Me’? Characterizing Types and an Antecedent of Material Possession Attachment.” Journal of Consumer Research, 22 (3): 327-43.
60.
KwortnikR. J.RossW. T. (2007). “The Role of Positive Emotions in Experiential Decisions.” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 24: 324-35.
61.
LazarusR. S. (1991). Emotion and Adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.
62.
LazarusR. S.SmithC. A. (1988). “Knowledge and Appraisal in the Cognition-Emotion Relationship.” Cognition and Emotion, 2: 281-300.
63.
LiY. (2000). “Geographical Consciousness and Tourism Experience.” Annals of Tourism Research, 27 (4): 863-83.
64.
LitvinS. W.GohH. K. (2002). “Self-Image Congruity: A Valid Tourism Theory?” Tourism Management, 23 (1): 81-83.
65.
LitvinS. W.GohH. K.GoldsmithR. E. (2001). “Travel Innovativeness and Self-Image Congruity.” Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 10 (4): 33-45.
66.
LuceM. F.PayneJ. W.BettmanJ. R. (1999). “Emotional Trade-Off Difficulty and Choice.” Journal of Marketing Research, 36 (2): 143-59.
67.
MacCannellD. (1976). The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class. New York: Schocken Books.
68.
MachleitK. A.ErogluS. A. (2000). “Describing and Measuring Emotional Response to Shopping Experience.” Journal of Business Research, 49 (2): 101-11.
69.
MannellR. C.Iso-AholaS. E. (1987). “Psychological Nature of Leisure and Tourism Experience.” Annals of Tourism Research, 14 (3): 314-31.
70.
MathesE. W.ZevonM. A.RoterP. M.JoergerS. M. (1982). “Peak Experience Tendencies: Scale Development and Theory Testing.” Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 22 (3): 92-108.
71.
MauroR.SatoK.TuckerJ. (1992). “The Role of Appraisal in Human Emotions: A Cross-Cultural Study.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62 (2): 301-17.
72.
McColl-KennedyJ. R.SparksB. A. (2003). “Application of Fairness Theory to Service Failures and Service Recovery.” Journal of Service Research, 5 (3): 251-66.
73.
McIntoshA.SiggsA. (2005). “An Exploration of the Experiential Nature of Boutique Accommodation.” Journal of Travel Research, 44 (1): 74-81.
74.
McIntoshA. J.PrenticeR. C. (1999). “Affirming Authenticity: Consuming Cultural Heritage.” Annals of Tourism Research, 26 (3): 589-612.
75.
MehrabianA.RussellJ. A. (1974). An Approach to Environmental Psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
76.
MeyerW.-U.ReisenzeinR.SchutzwohlA. (1997). “Toward a Process Analysis of Emotions: The Case of Surprise.” Motivation and Emotion, 21 (3): 251-74.
77.
MitchellT. R.ThompsonL.PetersonE.CronkR. (1997). “Temporal Adjustments in the Evaluation of Events: The ‘Rosy View.’” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33: 421-48.
78.
MunroB. H. (2005). Statistical Methods for Health Care Research. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
79.
MurphyP.PritchardM. P.SmithB. (2000). “The Destination Product and Its Impact on Traveller Perceptions.” Tourism Management, 21 (1): 43-52.
80.
NyerP. U. (1997). “A Study of the Relationships between Cognitive Appraisals and Consumption Emotions.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 25 (4): 296-304.
81.
OliverR. L.RustR. T.VarkiS. (1997). “Customer Delight: Foundations, Findings and Managerial Insight.” Journal of Retailing, 73 (3): 311-36.
82.
OliverR. L.WestbrookR. A. (1993). “Profiles of Consumer Emotions and Satisfaction in Ownership and Usage.” Journal of Consumer Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behavior, 6: 12-27.
83.
OrtonyA.CloreG. L.CollinsA. (1988). The Cognitive Structure of Emotions. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
84.
OttoJ. E.RitchieB. R. (1996). “The Service Experience in Tourism.” Tourism Management, 17 (3): 165-74.
85.
ParkinsonB.MansteadA. S. R. (1992). “Appraisal as a Cause of Emotion.” In Review of Personality and Social Psychology, edited by ClarkM. S.New York: Russell Sage, pp. 122-49.
86.
PrenticeR. C.WittS. F.HamerC. (1998). “Tourism as Experience: The Case of Heritage Parks.” Annals of Tourism Research, 25 (1): 1-24.
87.
ReisenzeinR. (2000). “The Subjective Experience of Surprise.” In The Message Within: The Role of Subjective Experience in Social Cognition and Behavior, edited by BlessH.ForgasJ. P.Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press, pp. 262-79.
88.
RichinsM. L. (1997). “Measuring Emotions in the Consumption Experience.” Journal of Consumer Research, 24 (2): 127-46.
89.
RobinsonM. D.CloreG. L. (2001). “Simulation, Scenarios, and Emotional Appraisal: Testing the Convergence of Real and Imagined Reactions to Emotional Stimuli.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27 (11): 1520-32.
90.
RosemanI. J. (1984). “Cognitive Determinants of Emotions: A Structural Theory.” In Emotions, Relationships and Health, Vol. 5, edited by ShaverP.Beverley Hills, CA: Sage, pp. 11-36.
91.
RosemanI. J. (1991). “Appraisal Determinants of Discrete Emotions.” Cognition and Emotion, 5: 161-200.
92.
RosemanI. J.AntoniouA. A.JoseP. E. (1996). “Appraisal Determinants of Emotions: Constructing a More Accurate and Comprehensive Theory.” Cognition and Emotion, 10 (3): 241-78.
93.
RosemanI. J.SpindelM. S.JoseP. E. (1990). “Appraisals of Emotion-Eliciting Events: Testing a Theory of Discrete Emotions.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59 (5): 899-915.
94.
RubinZ. (1970). “Measurement of Romantic Love.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16 (2): 265-73.
95.
RussellJ. A. (1991). “Culture and the Categorisation of Emotions.” Psychological Bulletin, 110 (3): 426-50.
96.
RustR. T.OliverR. L. (2000). “Should We Delight the Customer?”Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28 (1): 86-94.
97.
RuthJ. A.BrunelF. F.OtnesC. C. (2002). “Linking Thoughts to Feelings: Investigating Cognitive Appraisals and Consumption Emotions in a Mixed-Emotions Context.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 30 (2): 44-58.
98.
SanderD.GrandjeanD.SchererK. R. (2005). “A Systems Approach to Appraisal Mechanisms in Emotion.” Neural Networks, 18: 317-52.
99.
SchanzelH.McIntoshA. J. (2000). “An Insight into the Personal and Emotive Context of Wildlife Viewing at the Penguin Place, Otago, New Zealand.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 8 (1): 36-52.
100.
SchererK. R. (1984). “On the Nature and Function of Emotion: A Component Process Approach.” In Approaches to Emotion, edited by SchererK. R.EkmanP.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 293-317.
101.
SchererK. R. (1988). “Criteria for Emotion-Antecedent Appraisal: A Review.” In Cognitive Perspectives on Emotion and Motivation, edited by HamiltonV.BowerG. H.FrijdaN. H.Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic, pp. 89-126.
102.
SchererK. R. (1997a). “The Role of Culture in Emotion-Antecedent Appraisal.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73 (5): 902-22.
103.
SchererK. R. (1997b). “Profiles of Emotion-Antecedent Appraisal: Testing Theoretical Predictions across Cultures.” Cognition and Emotion, 11 (2): 113-50.
104.
SchererK. R. (1999). “Appraisal Theory.” In Handbook of Cognition and Emotion, edited by DalgleishT.PowerM.Chichester, UK: Wiley, pp. 637-63.
105.
SchoeferK.EnnewC. (2005). “The Impact of Perceived Justice on Consumers’ Emotional Responses to Service Complaint Experiences.” Journal of Services Marketing, 19 (5): 261-70.
106.
SherryA.HensonR. K. (2005). “Conducting and Interpreting Canonical Correlation Analysis in Personality Research: A User-Friendly Primer.” Journal of Personality Assessment, 84 (1): 37-48.
SirgyM. J. (2010). “Toward a Quality-of-Life Theory of Leisure Travel Satisfaction.” Journal of Travel Research, 49 (2): 246-60.
109.
SirgyM. J.SuC. (2000). “Destination Image, Self-Congruity and Travel Behavior: Toward an Integrative Model.” Journal of Travel Research, 38 (4): 340-52.
110.
SmithC. A.EllsworthP. C. (1985). “Patterns of Cognitive Appraisal in Emotion.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48 (4): 813-38.
111.
SosciaI. (2007). “Gratitude, Delight, or Guilt: The Role of Consumers’ Emotions in Predicting Postconsumption Behaviors.” Psychology & Marketing, 24 (10): 871-94.
112.
StephensN.GwinnerK. P. (1998). “Why Don’t Some People Complain? A Cognitive-Emotive Process Model of Consumer Complaint Behavior.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 26 (3): 172-89.
113.
SternbergE. (1997). “The Iconography of the Tourism Experience.” Annals of Tourism Research, 24 (4): 951-69.
114.
StipekD.WeinerB.LiK. (1989). “Testing Some Attribution-Emotion Relations in the People’s Republic of China.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56 (1): 109-16.
115.
TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S. (2007). Using Multivariate Analysis. 5th edition.Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
116.
ThompsonB. (1991). “A Primer on the Logic and Use of Canonical Correlation Analysis.” Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 24: 80-95.
UrielyN. (2005). “The Tourist Experience: Conceptual Developments.” Annals of Tourism Research, 32 (1): 199-216.
119.
WatsonD.ClarkL. A.TellegenA. (1988). “Development and Validation of Brief Measures of Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS Scales.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54 (6): 1063-70.
120.
WatsonL.SpenceM. T. (2007). “Causes and Consequences of Emotions on Consumer Behaviour: A Review and Integrative Cognitive Appraisal Theory.” European Journal of Marketing, 41 (5/6): 487-511.
121.
WestbrookR. A.OliverR. L. (1991). “The Dimensionality of Consumption Emotion Patterns and Customer Satisfaction.” Journal of Consumer Research, 18 (1): 84-91.
122.
WilliamsD. R.VaskeJ. J. (2003). “The Measurement of Place Attachment: Validity and Generalizability of a Psychometric Approach.” Forest Science, 49 (6): 830-40.
123.
YukselA.YukselF.BilimY. (2010). “Destination Attachment: Effects on Customer Satisfaction and Cognitive, Affective and Conative Loyalty.” Tourism Management, 31 (2): 274-84.
124.
ZeelenbergM.PietersR. (2004). “Beyond Valence in Customer Dissatisfaction: A Review and New Findings on Behavioral Responses to Regret and Disappointment in Failed Services.” Journal of Business Research, 57: 445-55.
