This article describes an empirical study undertaken in national tourism organizations in Europe responsible for tourism planning to investigate the parameters that compose the capability to integrate sustainability into the strategic planning process and the factors that contribute to its development. Results indicate that both strategic planning and the integration of sustainability in national tourism organizations face problems that limit the potential of strategic planning to contribute substantially toward sustainability. Further to problems traced within the organizations and in the design of the strategic planning process, the research reveals the negative influence exerted by various exogenous factors. This article discusses the role that national tourism organizations can play in operationalizing sustainable tourism and pursuing it through strategic planning and suggests ways to improve performance in this respect. It also reveals a large scope for more empirical work for the integration of sustainability into strategic planning for tourism at a national level.
Amit, R., and P. Schoemaker ( 1993). "Strategic Assets and Organizational Rent." Strategic Management Journal, 14: 33-46.
2.
Andrews, K.R. ( 1971). The Concept of Corporate Strategy. Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin.
3.
Ansoff, H.I. ( 1965). Corporate Strategy: An Analytical Approach to Business Policy for Growth and Expansion. New York: McGraw-Hill.
4.
Athiyaman, A. ( 1995). "The Interface of Tourism & Strategy Research: An Analysis." Tourism Management, 16 (6): 447-53.
5.
Banerjee, S.B. ( 2002). "Organisational Strategies for Sustainable Development: Developing a Research Agenda for the New Millennium." Australian Journal of Management, 27 (2): 105-18.
6.
Bourgeois, L.J. ( 1980). "Strategy and Environment: A Conceptual Integration." Academy of Management Review, 5 (1): 25-39.
7.
Bramwell, B. ( 2005). "Interventions and Policy Instruments for Sustainable Tourism." In Global Tourism, 3rd ed., edited by W. F. Theobald.London: Elsevier, pp. 406-25.
8.
Bramwell, B., and I. Henry ( 1996). "A Framework for Understanding Sustainable Tourism Management ." In Sustainable Tourism Management: Principles and Practice , edited by B. Bramwell, I. Henry, G. Jackson , A. G. Prat, G. Richards, and J. van der Straaten.Tilburg, Netherlands: Tilburg University Press.
9.
Bryson, J.M., and W.D. Roering ( 1987). "Applying Private-Sector Strategic Planning in the Public Sector." Journal of the American Planning Association, 53 (1): 9-22.
10.
Butler, R.W. ( 1999). "Sustainable Tourism-A State of Art Review." Tourism Geographies, 1: 7-25.
11.
Calingo, L.M.R. ( 1989). "Achieving Excellence in Strategic Planning Systems." SAM Advanced Management Journal, 54 (2): 21-23.
12.
Camillus, J.C., and D.K. Datta ( 1991). "Managing Strategic Issues in a Turbulent Environment ." Long-Range Planning, 24 (2): 67-74.
13.
Chamberlain, N. ( 1968). Enterprise and Environment: The Firm in Time and Place . New York: McGraw-Hill.
14.
Choy, D.J.L. ( 1993). "Alternative Roles of National Tourism Organizations ." Tourism Management, 14 (5): 357-65.
15.
Clarke, J. ( 1997). "A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism." Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 5: 224-33.
16.
Coccossis, H. ( 1996). "Tourism and Sustainability: Perspectives and Implications ." In Sustainable Tourism? European Experiences, edited by G. K. Priestley, J. A. Edwards, and H. Coccossis.London: CABI Publishing.
17.
Coccossis, H., and P. Tsartas ( 2001). Βιώσιμη τουριστική Ανάπτυξη και Περιβάλλον [Sustainable Tourism Development and the Environment]. Athens: Kritiki.
18.
Cooper, C., J. Fletcher, D. Gilbert, S. Wanhill, and R. Shepherd (Eds.) (1998). Tourism: Principles and Practice. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
19.
Dredge, D., and S. Moore ( 1992). "A Methodology for the Integration of Tourism in Town Planning." Journal of Tourism Studies, 3 (1): 8-21.
20.
Drucker, P. ( 1964). The Practice of Management. New York : Harper & Brothers.
21.
Dutton, I., and M.C. Hall ( 1989). "Making Tourism Sustainable: The Policy/Practice Conundrum ." Proceedings of the Environment Institute of Australia Second National Conference, October 9-11, Melbourne , Australia.
22.
Eber, S. (Ed.) (1992). Beyond the Green Horizon: A Discussion Paper on Principles for Sustainable Tourism . London: World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and Tourism Concern.
23.
Farrell, A., and M. Hart ( 1998). "What Does Sustainability Really Mean? The Search for Useful Indicators." Environment, 40 (9): 4-9, 26-31.
24.
Farsari, Y., R. Butler, and P. Prastacos ( 2007). "Sustainable Tourism Policy for Mediterranean Destinations: Issues and Interrelationships." International Tourism Policy , 1 (1): 103-21.
25.
Fyall, A., and B. Garrod ( 1997). "Sustainable Tourism: Towards a Methodology for Implementing the Concept." In Tourism and Sustainability: Principles to Practice, edited by M. J. Stabler.New York: CABI Publishing.
26.
Gilbert, D.C., and R. Kapur ( 1990). "Strategic Marketing Planning and the Hotel Industry ." International Journal of Hospitality Management, 9 (1): 27-43.
27.
Ginter, P.M., A.C. Rucks, and W.J. Duncan ( 1989). "Characteristics of Strategic Planning in Selected Service Industries and Planner Satisfaction with the Process." Management International Review, 29 (1): 66-74.
28.
Hambrick, D.C., and S. Finkelstein ( 1987). "Managerial Direction: A Bridge between Polar Views of Organizational Outcomes." Organisation Behavior, 9: 369-406.
29.
Hassan, S.S. ( 2000). "Determinants of Market Competitiveness in an Environmentally Sustainable Tourism Industry." Journal of Travel Research , 38 (3): 239-45.
30.
Holden, M. ( 2001). "Uses and Abuses of Urban Sustainability Indicator Studies ." Canadian Journal of Urban Research, 10 (2): 217-36.
31.
Holmberg, J. ( 1998). "Backcasting: A Natural Step in Operationalising Sustainable Development." Greener Management International, 23: 30-52.
32.
Hunter, C. ( 1997). "Sustainable Tourism as an Adaptive Paradigm." Annals of Tourism Research, 24 (4): 850-67.
33.
Ioannides, D. ( 2001). "Sustainable Development and the Shifting of Tourism Stakeholders: Towards a Dynamic Framework. In Tourism, Recreation and Sustainability, edited by S. F. McCool and R. N. Moisey.New York: CABI Publishing.
34.
Inskeep, E. ( 1991). Tourism Planning: An Integrated and Sustainable Development Approach. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
35.
International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) ( 2002). Beyond Delusion: A Science and a Policy Dialogue on Designing Effective Indicators for Sustainable Development. Workshop Report. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada: IISD.
36.
International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) ( 1996). Bellagio Principles. New York: Interfaith Center on Corporate Responsibility.
37.
Javidan, M. ( 1984). "Organizational versus Environmental Sources of Influence in Strategic Decision-Making." Strategic Management Journal , 2: 77-89.
38.
Jeffries, D. ( 2001). Governments and Tourism. Oxford, UK: Butter-worth-Heinemann.
39.
Judge, W.Q., and T.J. Douglas ( 1998). "Performance Implications of Incorporating Natural Environmental Issues into the Strategic Planning Process: An Empirical Assessment." Journal of Management Studies, 35 (2): 242-62.
40.
Kaufman J.L., and H.M. Jacobs ( 1987). "A Public Planning Perspective on Strategic Planning ." Journal of the American Planning Association, 53 (1): 23-33.
41.
Lanzarote World Conference (1995). Charter of Sustainable Tourism. http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/doc/Lanz-en.pdf (accessed November 10, 2006).
42.
Lennon, J., H. Smith, N. Cockerell, and J. Trew ( 2006). Bench-marking National Tourism Organisations and Agencies: Understanding Best Performance. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
43.
Lenz, R.T. ( 1980). "Strategic Capability: A Concept and Framework for Analysis ." Academy of Management Review, 5 (2): 225-34.
44.
Lenz, R.T., and M.A. Lyles ( 1981). "Tackling the Human Problems in Planning." Long Range Planning, 14 (2): 72-77.
45.
McCool, S.F., N. Moisey, and N.P. Nickerson ( 2001). "What Should Tourism Sustain? The Disconnect with Industry Perceptions of Useful Indicators." Journal of Travel Research , 40: 124-31.
46.
Mill, R.C., and A.M. Morrison ( 1985). The Tourism System. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
47.
Miller, G. ( 2001). "The Development of Indicators for Sustainable Tourism: Results of a Delphi Survey of Tourism Researchers." Tourism Management, 22: 351-62.
48.
Miller, D., and P.H. Friesen ( 1983). "Strategy-Makings and Environment: The Third Link." Strategic Management Journal, 4: 221-35. Mintzberg, H. (1994). The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning. New York: Free Press.
49.
Olsen, J.B., and D.C. Eadie ( 1982). The Game Plan: Governance with Foresight. Washington, DC: Council of State Planning Agencies .
50.
Page, S.J., and K.J. Thorn ( 1997). "Towards Sustainable Tourism Planning in New Zealand: Public Sector Planning Responses." Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 5 (1): 59-77.
51.
Phillips, P.A., and L. Moutinho ( 1998). Strategic Planning Systems in Hospitality and Tourism . Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing .
52.
Prindham, G. ( 1999). "Towards Sustainable Tourism in the Mediterranean? Policy and Practice in Italy, Spain and Greece." Environmental Politics , 8 (2): 97-116.
53.
Ramanujam, V., and N. Venkatraman ( 1987). "Planning System Characteristics and Planning Effectiveness ." Strategic Management Journal, 8: 453-68.
54.
Ramanujam, V., N. Venkatraman, and J. Camillus ( 1986). "Multi-Objective Assessment of Effectiveness of Strategic Planning: A Discriminant Analysis Approach." Academy of Management Journal, 16: 347-72.
Rhyne, L.C. ( 1985). "The Relationship of Information Usage Characteristics to Planning System Sophistication: An Empirical Examination." Strategic Management Journal, 6: 319-37.
57.
Ruhanen, L. ( 2004). "Strategic Planning for Local Tourism Destinations: An Analysis of Tourism Plans." Tourism and Hospitality: Planning and Development, 1 (3): 239-53.
58.
Selznick, P. ( 1957). Leadership in Administration. New York: Harper & Row.
59.
Sharpley, R. ( 2002). "Rural Tourism and the Challenge of Tourism Diversification: The Case of Cyprus." Tourism Management, 23: 233-44.
60.
Simpson, K. ( 2001). "Strategic Planning and Community Involvement as Contributors to Sustainable Tourism Development." Current Issues in Tourism , 4 (1): 3-41.
61.
Soteriou, E.C. ( 2007). " νταξη της Αειϕορίας στο Στρατηγικό Σχεδιασμό τουριστικών Προορισμών" [The Integration of Sustainability in the Strategic Planning of Tourism Destinations]. Doctoral diss., University of Thessaly.
62.
Soteriou, E.C., and C. Roberts ( 1998). "The Strategic Planning Process in National Tourism Organizations ." Journal of Travel Research, 37 (1): 21-29.
63.
Swarbrooke, J. ( 1999). Sustainable Tourism Management. New York: CABI Publishing.
64.
Taylor, G.D. ( 1994). "Research in National Tourism Organizations." In Travel and Tourism Hospitality Research: A Handbook for Managers and Researchers, edited by J. R. B. Ritchie and C. R. Goeldner.New York: John Wiley.
65.
Tourism Sustainability Group (2007). Action for More Sustainable European Tourism. Brussels , Belgium: European Commission.
66.
Turner, B.L. ( 1997). "The Sustainability Principle in Global Agendas: Implications for Understanding Land-Use/Cover Change." The Geographical Journal, 163 (2): 133-40.
67.
Turner, J. ( 1994). Natural Neighbour. BBC TV, October 22, 1994.
68.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and World Tourism Organization (WTO) (2005). Making Tourism More Sustainable: A Guide for Policy Makers. Madrid, Spain: WTO.
69.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) (2002). World Summit on Sustainable Development Plan of Implementation. http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/POIToc.htm (accessed December 20, 2006).
70.
Uyterhoeven, H., R. Ackerman, and J. Rosenblum ( 1973). Strategy and Organization: Text and Cases in General Management." Homewood, IL: Irwin .
71.
Venkatraman, N., and J.C. Camillus ( 1984). "Exploring the Concept of ‘Fit’ in Strategy Research." Academy of Management Review, 9: 513-25.
72.
Venkatraman, N., and J.E. Prescott ( 1990). "Environment-Strategy Coalignment: An Empirical Test of Its Performance Implications." Strategic Management Journal , 11: 1-23.
73.
Wechsler, B., and R.W. Backoff ( 1987). "The Dynamics of Strategy in Public Organizations." Journal of the American Planning Association, 53 (1): 34-43.
74.
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) ( 1987). Our Common Future. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
75.
World Tourism Organization (WTO) (1979). Role and Structure of National Tourism Administrations. Madrid, Spain: WTO.
76.
World Tourism Organization (WTO) (1993). Sustainable Tourism Development: Guide for Local Planners. Madrid, Spain: WTO.
77.
World Tourism Organization (WTO) (1997). Towards New Forms of Public-Private Sector Partnership: The Changing Role, Structure and Activities of National Tourism Administrations. Madrid, Spain: WTO.
78.
World Tourism Organization (WTO) (2004). Indicators of Sustainable Development for Tourism Destinations-A Guidebook . Madrid, Spain: WTO.
79.
World Tourism Organization (WTO) (2006). Structures and Budgets of National Tourism Organizations 2004-2005. Madrid, Spain: WTO.
80.
World Tourism Organization (WTO), World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC), and Earth Council (1996). Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry: Towards Environmentally Sustainable Development. London: WTTC.
