Carol Smart, Women, Crime and Criminology: A Feminist Critique (Boston , 1976), 1.
2.
Dorie Klein, "The Aetiology of Female Crime: A Review of the Literature". Issues in Criminology, 8 (Fall, 1973), 3.
3.
Robert A.Nye discusses the rejection of criminal anthropology in France in his article, "Hereditary or Milieu: The Foundations of Modern European Criminological Theory ", Isis, lxvii ( 1976), 335-55.
4.
Salvatore Ottolenghi, La sensibilità della donna (Turin, 1896 ), 3.
5.
Hermann Mannheim, Comparative Criminology (Boston, 1965 ).
6.
General reviews of the lives and thought of the leaders of the Italian school of criminal anthropology are provided by the chapters on Lombroso by Marvin E. Wolfgang, Ferri by Thorsten Sellin, and Garofalo by Francis A. Allen in Hermann Mannheim, Pioneers in Criminology (Chicago, 1960). For a more detailed discussion of Lombroso see Luigi Bulferetti, Cesare Lombroso (Turin, 1975). The major works of the group which summarize their ideas are C. Lombroso, Crime: Its Causes and Remedies (Boston, 1912); E. Ferri, Criminal Sociology (Boston, 1917); and R. Garofalo, Criminology (Boston, 1914).
7.
For Italians, the most important work of the classical school had been Cesare Beccaria's Der delitti e delle pene published in 1764. For an overview of Beccaria, see Elio Monachesi's chapter in Mannheim, Proneers in Criminology
8.
Lombroso, Crime, 365.
9.
Mannheim, Comparative Criminology , 222.
10.
Lombroso, Crime, 365.
11.
Ibid, 366.
12.
13.
Ibid, 375. From book to book, Lombroso modified his statistic on born criminals. Initially claiming that the majority of criminals fell into this category m the early editions of his L'uomo delinquente, he progressively decreased the figure in response to critics and his student Ferri, who insisted that he underemphasized environmental causes of crime.
14.
Lombroso also postulated several minor categories: insane criminals, criminaloids, epileptic criminals, and criminals by passion. Lombroso's explanation of the interplay of innate and environmental causes within these Intermediary groups shows that his analysis was more complex than his critics have conceded. He stressed the complexity of the aetiology of crime in the opening chapter of Crime: "Every crime has its origin in a multiplicity of courses, often intertwined and confused, each of which we must, in obedience to the necessities of thought or speech, investigate singly. This multiplicity is generally the rule with human phenomena, to which one can almost never assign a single cause unrelated to others".
15.
Ibid, 246-7.
16.
Ibid, 290. Lombroso, however, was not politically active, unlike Ferri, a prominent socialist speaker who even edited Avanti! for a short period.
17.
Salvatore Ottolenght , Trattato di polizia scientifica ( Milan, 1910), vol. 1, p. vii.
18.
Salvatore Ottolenghi , Polizia scientifica (Rome , 1907), 107.
19.
Salvatore Ottolenght , L'insegnatmento della polizia scientifica (Rome, 1914), 9.
20.
Cesare Lombroso and William Ferrero, The Female Offender ( New York, 1898), 105.
21.
Ibid, 107.
22.
Ibid, 109.
23.
24.
Ibid, 111.
25.
Lombroso.Crime, 186.
26.
Lombroso, The Female Offender , 106.
27.
Ibid, 122. 28. Ibid, 153.
28.
Ibid, 147. 30. Ibid, 148, 151.
29.
Ibid, 152.
30.
Lombroso, Crime, 243. Although Ferri agreed that born criminals could not be reformed, he specifically opposed the death sentence.
31.
Ibid, 243, 385.
32.
Ibid, 406. Garofalo stressed the weakness of women by placing them among his "Cases for Special Treatment" which also included the elderly, children, hypnotized persons, drunkards, and criminal monomaniacs. Garofalo, Criminology, 408.
33.
Ibid, 147-8.
34.
Ibid, 165.
35.
Lombroso, The Female Offender , 154.
36.
Lombroso, Crime, 406.
37.
On Italy's system of regulated prostitution see Mary Gibson, "Urban Prostitution in Italy, 1860-1915", dissertation (Indiana University , 1979).
38.
Lombroso.Crime, 406-7. Bulferetti interprets Lombroso as opposing the regulation system, but this is contradicted by Lombroso's explicit statements in Crime. See Bulferetti, Cesare Lombroso, 350.
39.
Lombroso, Crime, 259.
40.
Ottolenght, Polizia Scientifica , 122.
41.
Italy, Direzione Generale delle Carceri, Estratto dalla statistica delle carceri, 1883-1884 (Rome, 1885); Italy, D. G. delle Carceri e der Riformtatorii, Statistica der riformatorii (Rome, 1910).
42.
The ideal of the Victorian woman is described by Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820-1860", Amarican Quarterly, xviii (1966), 151-74. For the condition of women in Italy see Luciana Capezzuoli and Grazia Cappabianca, Storia dell'emancipazione femminile (Rome, 1964); Fanny Zampini Salazaro, "Women's Condition in Italy", Report of the International Concil of Women (Washington, D.C., 1888); the chapter by Aurelia Cimino Folliero de Luna in Theodore Stanton (ed.), The Woman Question in Europe (New York, 1884); and Anna Maria Mozzon). La liberazione della donna, ed. by Franca Pieroni Bortolotti (Milan, 1975).
43.
For a critique of Lombroso's methodology see Wolfgang in Mannheim, Pioneers in Criminology, and Lee Bowker, Women, Crime and the Criminal Justice System (Lexington, Mass., 1978), 31-33.
44.
For Lombroso's general influence on twentieth-century European and American criminology, see Wolfgang in Mannheim, Pioneers in Criminology; and Mannheim, "Lombroso and his Place in Modern Criminology", The Sociological Review, xxviii ( 1936), 31-49. His influence has been especially strong in the area of women and crime because there are relatively few other studies of female criminals and because women's condition in most areas has traditionally been explained by reference to biology. See Smart, Women, Crime and Criminology, 31-37; Klein, "The Aetiology of Female Crime". 7-11; and Bowker, Women, Crime and the Criminal Justice System, 29-33.
