This study of a statewide, stratified random sample of 3,335 public high school students is designed to examine the robustness of self-control in predicting alcohol consumption, other drug use, crimes against persons, and property offenses. Comparisons in prediction of these forms of delinquency are made between two measures of self-control, social characteristics, and elements of other theories. An examination also is made of whether self-control accounts for commensurate amounts of variance within categories of social characteristics. A behavioral measure of self-control generally is a stronger predictor of delinquency than a cognitive measure. Inconsistent findings are observed in analyses of whether self-control accounts for commensurate variation in delinquency between and within categories of these social characteristics. Both measures are significant predictors of delinquency when they are simultaneously analyzed with many factors extrapolated from other theories. Implications of the findings are discussed in terms of future theory and research.
Agnew, R. A. (2001). Building on the foundation of general strain theory: Specifying the types of strain most likely to lead to crime and delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38, 319-361.
2.
Akers, R. L. (1998). Social learning and social structure: A general theory of crime and deviance. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
3.
Akers, R. L., & Sellers, C. S. (2004). Criminological theories: Introduction and evaluation (4th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury.
4.
Arbuckle, J. L. (1999). AMOS users’ guide: Version 3.6 (2nd ed.). Chicago: Smallwaters Corporation.
5.
Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and peer attachment: Individual differences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 427-454.
6.
Bandura, A. (1997) Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
7.
Bao, W., Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., & Conger, R. D. (1999). Perceived parental acceptance as a moderator of religious transmission among adolescent boys and girls. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 362-375.
8.
Barnes, L. L., Plotnikoff, G. A., Fox, K., & Pendleton, S. (2000). Spirituality, religion, and pediatrics: Intersecting worlds of healing. Pediatrics, 106, 899-908.
9.
Bartusch, D. R., Lynam, D. R., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1997). Is age important? Testing a general versus a developmental theory of antisocial behavior. Criminology, 35, 13-48.
10.
Benda, B. B. (1997). An examination of a reciprocal relationship between religiosity and different forms of delinquency within a theoretical model. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 34, 163-186.
11.
Benda, B. B. (2002a). Religion and violent offenses among youth entering boot camp: Structural equation model. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 39, 92-101.
12.
Benda, B. B. (2002b). A test of three competing theoretical models of delinquency using structural equation modeling. Journal of Social Service Research, 29, 55-91.
13.
Benda, B. B. (2003). Survival analysis of criminal recidivism of boot camp graduates using elements from general and developmental explanatory models. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47, 89-101.
14.
Benda, B. B., Toombs, N. J., & Peacock, M. (2003a). Discriminators of types of recidivism among boot camp graduates in a 5-year follow-up study. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 539-559.
15.
Benda, B. B., Toombs, N. J., & Peacock, M. (2003b). An examination of competing theories in predicting recidivism of adult offenders five years after graduation from boot camp. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 37, 43-75.
16.
Bentler, P. M. (1995). EQS structural equations program manual. Los Angeles, CA: BMDP Statistical Software.
17.
Bernstein, D. P., & Fink, L. (1998). Childhood Trauma Questionnaire: A retrospective self-report questionnaire and manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
18.
Boney-McCoy, S., & Finkelhor, D. (1995). Psychosocial sequelae of violence in the juvenile justice system. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 726-736.
19.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss. Vol. 3: Loss, sadness and depression. New York: Basic Books.
20.
Bowlby, J. (1988). Developmental psychiatry comes of age. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 1-10.
21.
Brezina, T. (2000). Delinquent problem-solving: An interpretive framework for criminological theories and research. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 37, 3-30.
22.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
23.
Burton, V. S., Evans, D., Cullen, F. T., Ovares, K. M., & Dunaway, R. G. (1998). Age, self-control, adults’ offending behaviors: A research note assessing a general theory of crime. Journal of Criminal Justice, 27, 45-54.
24.
Bushway, S. D., Piquero, A. R., Broidy, L. M., Cauffman, E., & Mazerolle, P. (2001). An empirical framework for studying desistance as a process. Criminology, 39, 491-515.
25.
Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Krueger, R. F., & Schmutte, P. S. (1994). Are some people crime prone? Replication of the person-crime relationship across countries, genders, race, and methods. Criminology, 32, 163-195.
26.
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1995). A developmental psychopathology perspective on child abuse and neglect. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 541-564.
27.
Cochran, J. K., Wood, P. B., Sellers, C. S., Wilkerson, W., & Chamblin, M. B. (1998). Academic dishonesty and low self-control: An empirical test of a general theory of crime. Deviant Behavior, 19, 227-255.
28.
Conger, R. D., & Conger, K. J. (2002). Resilience in mid western families: Selected findings from the first decade of a prospective, longitudinal study. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 361-373.
29.
Cronbach, L. (1951). Coefficient alpha and internal structure of tests. Psychometrica, 16, 297-334.
30.
Dean, C. W., Brame, R., & Piquero, A. R. (1996). Criminal propensities, discrete groups of offenders, and persistence in crime. Criminology, 34, 547-574.
31.
Dukes, R. L., & Stein, J. A. (2001). Effects of assets and deficits on the social control of at-risk behavior among youth: A structural equations approach. Youth & Society, 32, 337-359.
32.
Elder, G. H., Jr. (Ed.). (1985). Life course dynamic: Transitions and trajectories. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
33.
Ellison, C. W. (1983). Spiritual well-being: Conceptualization and measurement. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 11, 330-340.
34.
Empey, L. T., Stafford, M. C., & Hay, C. H. (1999). American delinquency: Its meaning and construction (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
35.
Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
36.
Finkelhor, D., & Dziuba-Leatherman, J. (1994). Children as victims of violence: A national survey. Pediatrics, 94, 413-420.
37.
Fischer J., & Corcoran, K. (1994). Measures for clinical practice: A sourcebook (2nd ed., Vol. 2). New York: Free Press.
38.
Freund, R. J., & Wilson, W. J. (1998). Regression analysis: Statistical modeling of a response variable. New York: Academic Press.
39.
Gibbs, J. J., Giever, D., & Martin, J. S. (1998). Parental management and self-control: An empirical test of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 35, 40-70.
40.
Giordano, P. C., Cernkovich, S. A., & Rudolph, J. L. (2002). Gender, crime, and desistance: Toward a theory of cognitive transformation. American Journal of Sociology, 107, 990-1064.
41.
Gottfredson, M., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
42.
Grasmick, H., Tittle, C., Bursik, R. J., & Arneklev, B. J. (1993). Testing the core empirical assumptions of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30, 5-29.
43.
Hanson, R. F., & Spratt, E. G. (2000). Reactive attachment disorder: What we know about the disorder and implications for treatment. Child Maltreatment, 5, 137-145.
44.
Hay, C. (2001). Parenting, self-control, and delinquency: A test of self-control theory. Criminology, 39, 707-736.
45.
Hindelang, M. J., Hirschi, T., & Weis, J. G. (1981). Measuring delinquency. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
46.
Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
47.
Hirschi, T., & Gottfredson, M. R. (1993). Commentary: Testing the general theory of crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30, 47-54.
48.
Hirschi, T., & Gottfredson, M. R. (1995). Control theory and the life-course perspective. Studies on Crime and Crime-Prevention, 4, 131-142.
49.
Hudson, W. W. (1990). The MPSI technical manual. Tempe, AZ: Walmer Publishing.
50.
Hudson, W. W., & McMurtry, S. L. (1997). Comprehensive assessment in social work practice: The Multi-Problem Screening Inventory. Research on Social Work Practice, 7, 79-98.
51.
Ireland, T. O., Smith, C. A., & Thornberry, T. A. (2002). Developmental issues in the impact of child maltreatment on later delinquency and drug use. Criminology, 40, 359-399.
52.
Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Shaver, P. R. (1990). Attachment theory and religion: Childhood attachments, religious beliefs, and conversion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 29, 315-334.
53.
LaGrange, T. C., & Silverman, R. A. (1999). Low self-concept and opportunity: Testing the general theory of crime as an explanation for gender differences in delinquency, Criminology, 37, 41-72.
54.
Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., De Stefanis, I., & Apfel, A. (2001). Understanding developmental systems in adolescence: Implications for methodological strategies, data analytic approaches, and training. Journal of Adolescent Research, 6, 9-27.
55.
Longshore, D. (1998). Self-control and criminal opportunity: A prospective test of the general theory of crime. Social Problems, 45, 102-113.
56.
Longshore, D., Stein, J. A., & Turner, S. (1998). Reliability and validity of a self-control measure: Rejoinder. Criminology, 36, 175-182.
57.
Maddox, S. M., Mercandante, J. E., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B., & Rogers, R. W. (1982). The Self-Efficacy Scale: Construction and validation, Psychological Reports, 51, 663-671.
58.
Marcos, A. C., & Bahr, S. J. (1988). Control theory and adolescent drug use. Youth & Society, 13, 395-425.
59.
Mason, W. A., & Windle, M. (2002). Gender, self-control, and informal self-control in adolescence: A test of three models of continuity of delinquent behavior. Youth & Society, 33, 479-514.
60.
Mehrabian, A. (1994). Manual for the alcohol and drug use scales. Monterey, CA: Author.
61.
Mehrabian, A. (2001). General relations among drug use, alcohol use, and major indexes of psychopathology. Journal of Psychology, 135, 71-86.
62.
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674-701.
63.
Moffitt, T. E., Avshalom, C., & Rutter, M. (2001). Sex differences in antisocial behaviour: Conduct disorder, delinquency, and violence in the Dunedin longitudinal study. New York: Cambridge University Press.
64.
Nakhaie, M. R., Silverman, R. A., & LaGrange, T. C. (2000). Self-control and social control: An examination of gender, ethnicity, class, and delinquency. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 25, 35-39.
65.
Nye, F. I., & Short, J. F. (1957). Scaling delinquent behavior. American Sociological Review, 22, 326-331.
66.
Paterson, J., Pryor, J., & Field, J. (1995). Adolescent attachment to parents and friends in relation to aspects of self-esteem. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 365-376.
67.
Patterson, G. R., Crosby, L., & Vuchinich, S. (1992). Predicting risk for early police arrest. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 8, 335-355.
68.
Patterson, G. R., DeBaryshe, B. D., & Ramsey, E. (1989). A developmental perspective on antisocial behavior. American Psychologist, 44, 329-335.
69.
Piquero, A. R., Brame, R., Mazerolle, P., & Haapanen, R. (2002). Crime in emerging adulthood, Criminology, 40, 137-169.
70.
Piquero, A. R., & Rosay, A. B. (1998). The reliability and validity of Grasmick et al.’s self-control scale: A comment on Longshore et al. Criminology, 36, 157-173.
71.
Piquero, A. R., & Tibbetts, S. (1996). Specifying the direct and indirect effects of low self-control and situational factors in decision-making: Toward a more complete model of rational offending. Justice Quarterly, 13, 481-510.
72.
Pratt, T. C., & Cullen, F. T. (2000). The empirical status of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime: A meta-analysis. Criminology, 38, 931-960.
73.
Regnerus, M. D. (2003). Linked lives, faith, and behavior: Intergenerational religious influence on adolescent delinquency. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 42, 189-203.
74.
Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1993). Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
75.
Simons, R. L., Stewart, E., Gordon, L. C., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (2002). A test of life-course explanations for stability and change in antisocial behavior from adolescence to young adulthood. Criminology, 40, 401-434.
76.
Stein, J. A., & Newcomb, M. B. (1999). Adult outcomes of adolescent conventional and agentic orientations: A 20-year longitudinal study. Journal of Early Adolescence, 19, 39-65.
77.
Tan, A. L., Kendis, R. J., Fine, J. T., & Porac, J. (1977). A short measure of Eriksonian ego identity. Journal of Personality Assessment, 41, 279-284.
78.
Tittle, C. R., & Grasmick, H. G. (1997). Criminal behavior and age: A test of three provocative hypotheses, Criminology, 88, 309-343.
79.
Tittle, C. R., Ward, D. A., & Grasmick, H. G. (2003). Gender, age, and crime/deviance: A challenge to self-control theory. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40, 426-453.
80.
Vazsonyi, A. T., Pickering, L. E., Junger, M., & Hessing, D. (2001). An empirical test of a general theory of crime: A four-nation comparative study of self-control and the prediction of deviance. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38, 91-131.
81.
Wagnild, G. M., & Young, H. M. (1993). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 1, 165-178
82.
Warr, M. (1993). Age, peers, and delinquency. Criminology, 31, 17-40.
83.
Warr, M. (1998). Life-course transitions and desistance from crime. Criminology, 36, 183-216.
84.
Weeks, R., & Widom, C. S. (1998). Self-reports of early childhood victimization among incarcerated adult male felons. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 346-356.
85.
Widom, C. S. (1996). Crime and childhood sexual abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1223-1230.
86.
Widom, C. S. (2001). Alcohol abuse as risk factor for and consequence of child abuse. Alcohol Research and Health, 25, 52-58.
87.
Wright, B. R. E., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (2001). The effects of social ties on crime vary by criminal propensity: A life-course model of interdependence. Criminology, 39, 321-351.
