Using an ecological framework, this paper examines the body mass index (BMI), physical activity and travel behaviour of household heads in a US new urbanist neighbourhood relative to household heads of comparable conventional suburban US neighbourhoods. Using a quasi-experimental design, a new urbanist neighbourhood and five conventional suburban neighbourhoods were matched on age of development, assessed property values and regional accessibility. Self-reported height, weight, physical activity and travel behaviours were obtained from the household heads in each neighbourhood type. No direct association was detected between neighbourhood type and BMI. However, household heads of single-family dwellings in the new urbanist neighbourhood have lower BMI partly due to the number of utilitarian trips made by walking or bicycling. This relationship is independent of physical activity time. Although small in magnitude, this association may have appreciable morbidity effects at the population level.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Brown, B.B. and Cropper, V.L. (2001) New urban and standard suburban subdivisions: evaluating psychological and social goals , Journal of the American Planning Association, 67(4), pp. 402—419.
2.
Brown, W.J. , Trost, S.G. , Bauman,A. et al. (2004) Test-retest reliability of four physical activity measures used in population surveys , Journal for Science and Medicine in Sport, 7(2), pp. 205—215.
3.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2001) Behavioral risk factor surveillance system survey questionnaire. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA.
4.
Cervero, R. and Kockelman, K. (1997) Travel demand and the 3Ds: density, diversity and design , Transportation Research D, 2(3), pp. 199—219.
5.
Committee on Physical Activity, Health, Transportation, and Land Use (2005) Does the Built Environment Influence Physical Activity? Examining the Evidence. TRB Special Report No. 282, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
6.
Congress of New Urbanism (2002) New Urban Projects on a Neighborhood Scale in the United States. Ithaca, NY: New Urban News.
7.
Dill, J. (2004) Travel behavior and attitudes: new urbanist versus traditional suburban neighborhoods . Paper presented at the 83rd Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, January.
8.
Evenson, K.R. and McGinn, A.P. (2005) Test-retest reliability of adult surveillance measures for physical activity and inactivity , American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(5), pp. 470—478.
9.
Evenson, K.R. , Eyler, A.A. , Wilcox, S. et al. (2003) Test-retest reliability of a questionnaire on physical activity and its correlates among women from diverse racial and ethnic groups , American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 25(3, Suppl. 1), pp. 15—22.
10.
Ewing, R. (2005) Can the physical environment determine physical activity levels? , Exercise & Sport Sciences Reviews, 33(2), pp. 69—75.
11.
Ewing, R. and Cervero, R. (2001) Travel and the built environment , Transportation Research Record, 1780, pp. 87—114.
12.
Ewing, R. , Schmid, T. , Killingsworth, R. et al. (2003) Relationship between urban sprawl and physical activity, obesity, and morbidity , American Journal of Health Promotion, 18(1), pp. 47—57.
13.
Finkelstein, E.A. , Fiebelkorn, I.C. and Wang, G. (2003) National medical spending attributable to overweight and obesity: how much, and who's paying? , Health Affairs, Supplemental Web Exclusives, 14 May, W3, pp. 219—226.
14.
Ford, E.S. , Merritt, R.K. , Heath, G.W. et al. (1991) Physical activity behaviors in lower and higher socioeconomic status populations , American Journal of Epidemiology, 133(12), pp. 1246—1256.
15.
Forsyth, A. , Oakes, J.M. , Schmitz, K.H. and Hearst, M. (2007) Does residential density increase walking and other physical activity? , Urban Studies, 44(4), pp. 679—697.
16.
Frank, L.D. (2004) Economic determinants of urban form: resulting trade-offs between active and sedentary forms of travel , American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27(Suppl. 3), pp. 126—135.
17.
Frank, L.D. and Engelke, P. (2001) The built environment and human activity patterns: exploring the impacts of urban form on public health , Journal of Planning Literature, 16(2), pp. 202—218.
18.
Frank, L.D. and Pivo, G. (1995) Impacts of mixed use and density on utilization of three modes of travel: single-occupant vehicle, transit, and walking , Transportation Research Record, 1466, pp. 44—52.
19.
Frank, L.D. , Andresen, M.A. and Schmid, T.L. (2004) Obesity relationships with community design, physical activity, and time spent in cars , American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27(2), pp. 87—96.
20.
Frank, L.D. , Schmid, T.L. , Sallis, J.F. et al. (2005) Linking objectively measured physical activity with objectively measured urban form: findings from SMARTRAQ , American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(2, Suppl. 2), pp. 117—125.
21.
Giles-Corti, B. and Donovan, R.J. (2002) Socioeconomic status differences in recreational physical activity levels and real and perceived access to a supportive physical environment , Preventive Medicine, 35(6), pp. 601—611.
22.
Greenwald, M.J. and Boarnet, M.G. (2002) Built environment as determinant of walking behavior: analyzing nonwork pedestrian travel in Portland , Oregon, Transportation Research Record, 1780, pp. 33—42.
23.
Handy, S. (1992) Regional versus local accessibility: neo-traditional development and its implications for non-work travel , Built Environment, 18, pp. 253—267.
24.
Handy, S. (1996) Urban form and pedestrian choices: study of Austin neighborhoods , Transportation Research Record, 1552, pp. 135—144.
25.
Handy, S. and Clifton, K.J. (2001) Local shopping as a strategy for reducing automobile travel , Transportation, 28, pp. 317—346.
26.
Handy, S. , Cao, X. and Mokhtarian, P. (2005) Correlation or causality between the built environment and travel behavior? Evidence from northern California , Transportation Research Part D, 10, pp. 427—444.
27.
Handy, S. , Cao, X. and Mokhtarian, P.L. (2006) Does self-selection explain the relationship between built environment and walking behavior? Empirical evidence from northern California , Journal of the American Planning Association, 72(1), pp. 55—74.
28.
Handy, S. , Boarnet, M. , Ewing, R. and Killingsworth, R. (2002) How the built environment affects physical activity: views from planning , American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23(2S), pp. 64—73.
29.
Hillsdon, M. , Foster, C. and Thorogood, M. (2005) Interventions for promoting physical activity , Cochrane Database Systematic Review, 1, Article No. CD003180.
30.
Jakicic, J.M. (2002) The role of physical activity in prevention and treatment of body weight gain in adults , Journal of Nutrition , 132(12), pp. 3826S—3829S.
31.
Kelly-Schwartz, A. , Stockard, J. , Doyle, S. et al. (2004) Is sprawl unhealthy? A multilevel analysis of the relationship of metropolitan sprawl to the health of individuals , Journal of Planning Education and Research, 24(2), pp. 184—196.
32.
Khattak, A.J. and Rodriguez, D.A. (2005) Travel behavior in neo-traditional neighborhood developments: a case study in USA , Transportation Research Part A, 39, pp. 481—500.
33.
Khattak, A.J. , Targa, F. and Yim, Y. ( 2004) Advanced traveler information systems: relationship to travel behavior, in: D. Gillen and D. Levinson (Eds) Assessing the Cost and Benefits of Intelligent Transportation Systems, pp. 218—240. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
34.
Kim, S. , Symons, M. and Popkin, B.M. (2004) Contrasting socioeconomic profiles related to healthier lifestyles in China and the United States , American Journal Epidemiology, 159(2), pp. 184—191.
35.
King, A. , Castro, C. , Wilcox, S. et al. (2000) Personal and environmental factors associated with physical inactivity among different racial/ethnic groups of US middle- and older-aged women , Health Psychology, 19(4), pp. 354—364.
36.
Kitamura, R. , Laidet, L. and Mokhtarian, P. (1997) A micro-analysis of land use and travel in five neighborhoods in the San Francisco Bay area , Transportation , 24, pp. 125—158.
37.
Levine, J.C. (2005) Zoned Out: Regulation, Markets, and Choice in Transportation and Land Use. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future Press.
38.
Librett, J.J. , Yore, M.M. and Schmid, T.L. (2003) Local ordinances that promote physical activity: a survey of municipal policies , American Journal of Public Health, 93(9), pp. 1399—1403.
39.
McCormack, G. , Giles-Corti, B. , Lange, A. et al. (2004) An update of recent evidence of the relationship between objective and self-report measures of the physical environment and physical activity behaviours , Journal for Science and Medicine in Sport, 7(1, Suppl.), pp. 81—92.
40.
McLeroy, K.R. , Bibeau, D. , Steckler, A. and Glanz, K. (1988) An ecological perspective on health promotion programs , Health Education Quarterly, 15(4), pp. 351—377.
41.
McNally, M.G. and Kulkarni, A. (1997) Assessment of influence of land use-transportation system on travel behavior , Transportation Research Record , 1607, pp. 105—115.
42.
Morrow-Jones, H.A. , Irwin, E.G. and Roe, B. (2004) Consumer preference for neotraditional neighborhood characteristics , Housing Policy Debate, 15(1), pp. 171—202.
43.
Moudon, A.V. , Hess, P.M. , Snyder, M.C. and Stanilov, K. (1997) Effects of site design and pedestrian travel in mixed-use, medium-density environments , Transportation Research Record, 1578, pp. 48—55.
44.
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (2004) Behavioral risk factor surveillance system. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA (http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/; accessed 15 January 2005).
45.
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (2005) Body mass index. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA (http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/bmi/index.htm; accessed 15 January 2005).
46.
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (1998) Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults. Publication No. 98-4083, National Institutes of Health, Washington, DC (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bookres.fcgi/obesity/obesity.pdf ).
47.
Newell, S.A. , Girgis, A. , Sanson-Fisher, R.W. and Savolainen, N.J. (1999) The accuracy of self-reported health behaviors and risk factors relating to cancer and cardiovascular disease in the general population: a critical review , American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 17(3), pp. 211—229.
48.
Northridge, M.E. , Sclar, E. and Biswas, P. (2003) Sorting out the connections between the built environment and health: a conceptual framework for navigating pathways and planning healthy cities , Journal of Urban Health, 80, pp. 556—590.
49.
Pate, R. , Pratt, M. , Blair, S. et al. (1995) Physical activity and public health: a recommendation from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine , Journal of the American Medical Association , 273, pp. 402—407.
50.
Pi-Sunyer, F.X. (1999) Comorbidities of overweight and obesity: current evidence and research issues , Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 31(11, Suppl.), pp. S602—608.
51.
Robert, S.A. and Reither, E.N. (2004) A multilevel analysis of race, community disadvantage, and body mass index among adults in the US , Social Science and Medicine, 59(12), pp. 2421—2434.
52.
Rodriguez, D. and Joo, J. (2004) The relationship between non-motorized mode choice and the local physical environment , Transportation Research Part D, 9, pp. 151—173.
53.
Rodriguez, D.A. , Brown, A.L. and Troped, P.J. (2005) Portable global positioning units to complement accelerometry-based physical activity monitors , Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37(11, Suppl.), pp. S572—S581.
54.
Rodriguez, D.A. , Khattak, A.J. and Evenson, K.R. (2006) Can new urbanism encourage physical activity? , Journal of the American Planning Association, 72(1), pp. 43—53.
55.
Saelens, B.E. , Sallis, J.F. and Frank, L.D. (2003a) Environmental correlates of walking and cycling: findings from the transportation, urban design, and planning literatures , Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 25(2), pp. 80—91.
56.
Saelens, B.E. , Sallis, J.F. , Black, J.B. and Chen, D. (2003b) Neighborhood-based differences in physical activity: an environment scale evaluation , American Journal of Public Health, 93(9), pp. 1552—1558.
57.
Sallis, J. and Owen, N. (2002) Ecological models of health behavior, in: K. Glanz , B. Rimer and F. Lewis (Eds) Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3rd edn, pp. 462—484. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
58.
Sallis, J. , Johnson, M. , Calfas, K. et al. (1997) Assessing perceived physical environmental variables that may influence physical activity , Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 68(4), pp. 345—351.
59.
Sharpe, P.A. , Granner, M.L. , Hutto, B. et al. (2004) Association of body mass index to meeting physical activityrecommendations ,AmericanJournal of Health Behavior, 28(6), pp. 522—530.
60.
Song, Y. and Knapp, G.J. (2004) Measuring urban form: is Portland winning the war on sprawl? , Journal of the American Planning Association, 70(2), pp. 210—226.
61.
Spencer, E.A. , Appleby, P.N. , Davey, G.K. and Key, T.J. (2002) Validity of self-reported height and weight in 4808 EPIC-Oxford participants , Public Health Nutrition, 5(4), pp. 561—565.
62.
Stokols, D. (1992) Establishing and maintaining healthy environments: toward a social ecology of health promotion , American Psychologist , 47(1), pp. 6—22.
63.
Strath, S.J. , Bassett, D.R. Jr , Ham, S.A. and Swartz, A.M. (2003) Assessment of physical activity by telephone interview versus objective monitoring , Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35(12), pp. 2112—2118.
64.
Sturm, R. and Cohen, D.A. (2004) Suburban sprawl and physical and mental health , Public Health, 118, pp. 488—496.
65.
Trost, S. , Owen, N. , Bauman, A. et al. (2002) Correlates of adults' participation in physical activity: review and update , Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34(12), pp. 1996—2001.
66.
US Department of Health and Human Services (1996) Physical activity and health: a report of the Surgeon General. US DHHS, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA.
67.
US Department of Health and Human Services (2001) The Surgeon General's call to action to prevent and decrease overweight and obesity. Office of the Surgeon General, US Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD.
68.
US Department of Transportation (2003) Highlights of the 2001 National Household Travel Survey. Bureau of Transportation Statistics, US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC.
69.
World Health Organisation (1995) Physical status: the use and interpretation of anthropometry. WHO Technical Report Series, World Health Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland.
