Elevating Culturally Responsive Practices of School Practitioners

Abstract

Students with disabilities comprise a heterogeneous group of students that represent a range of eligibility categories (e.g., autism, intellectual disability) under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 2004). Special education teachers have a critical role in the programming of the student’s individualized education program (IEP). Because these practitioners are often the lead person tasked with managing the student’s IEP, they are charged with creating and continuously evaluating the efficacy of the program (Bateman & Cline, 2016).

Some students may require additional supports from related service providers to increase their benefit from special education (IDEA, 2004, §300.34). These may include direct or consult services related to developmental skills, remedial strategies, and other supportive services that may help the student reach positive educational outcomes. In this case, some of these practitioners may include but not are limited to speech language pathology, physical therapy, occupational therapy, and counseling services (IDEA, 2004, §300.34). The goal of these discipline-specific services is to provide students with the supports needed in a specific domain based on the strengths and needs outlined in their IEP.

Beyond these practitioners, another professional who can provide support in school settings is a Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA). Over the past years, applied behavior analysis services have become more in demand in school districts (VanDerwall & Poling, 2020). For example, in some cases, BCBAs may overlap with school psychologists in developing schoolwide culturally responsive positive behavior interventions and supports (CRPBIS; Bal, 2018) and individualized programs, such as functional behavior assessments and behavior intervention plans (Giangreco et al., 2023). As such, BCBAs are often tasked to support special education teachers in effectively creating plans for students who may require behavioral supports (Giangreco et al., 2023).

As behavior-analytic practitioners, BCBAs aim to improve an individual’s quality of life through behavior-change programming (Behavior Analyst Certification Board [BACB], 2020). In turn, BCBAs are often solicited to assess and support target behaviors in school, home, and community settings; this requires them to collaborate with various relevant partners (Dennison et al., 2019; Giangreco et al., 2023; Trump et al., 2018). In the school setting, to provide effective and high-quality services to students with behaviors that interfere in their education, special education teachers and BCBAs should work together to design behavior plans that support the students and enhance their outcomes (BACB, 2020; Council for Exceptional Children [CEC], 2020).

Ms. Robinson, a White, cisgender special education teacher, has been working in a historically White suburban neighborhood school for the past 10 years. At the beginning of the school year, Ms. Robinson started to review the students’ files and IEPs and realized that five new students had been added to her caseload in her multigrade classroom: Joshua, a White 6-year-old boy; Kaitlyn, a White 7-year-old girl; Mohammed, a Middle Eastern 7-year-old boy; Jerimiah, a Black 9-year-old boy, and Rebecca, a Hispanic 9-year-old girl. Ms. Robinson’s caseload was different than she was used to because three of her new students were from diverse backgrounds. In her teaching career, she had only worked with White students; yet she was eager to get to know all her new students well. Ms. Robinson shares her excitement with the school principal about the increased number of students from diverse backgrounds in her classroom, and Dr. Smalls mentions that these changes were across the school district, not just at Appleville Elementary.

Cultural Diversity in U.S. Schools

Over the past several years, there has been an increase in culturally and linguistically diverse students in K–12 classrooms (Fabes et al., 2018). In fact, in the United States, racial and ethnic diversity continues to rise and is at an all-time high, with 42.2% of individuals not identifying as White, non-Hispanic (Jensen et al., 2021). The growth in diversity across the United States has directly correlated to the increased number of students in K–12 schools who come from diverse backgrounds (Madler et al., 2022). This subgroup of students represents students who speak a language other than English at home and identify with a culture¹ or religion that differs from the dominant mainstream culture (Dennison et al., 2019; Peterson et al., 2020).

Importantly, there is a disproportionate representation of students of color receiving special education services, leading to an overrepresentation of racial and ethnically diverse students (Grindal et al., 2019). Consequently, students may be receiving services based more on their backgrounds and less on their needs (Cruz & Rodl, 2018). More specifically, according to the U.S. Department of Education (2021), Black students are more likely to be identified with intellectual disability (1.48 times) or with emotional disturbance (1.30 times) compared to other students with disabilities. Similarly, multiracial students were 1.39 times more likely to be identified with emotional disturbance, and Asian students were 2.37 times more likely to be identified with autism. Beyond disproportionate identification, students of color also receive greater discipline sanctions and deficits-based stereotypes from school personnel (Bal, 2018; Tefera et al., 2023). These disparities can have an impact on the students’ schoolwide experiences, educational outcomes, relationships (Chan et al., 2022), and service provisions (Beaulieu et al., 2019).

The increase in diversity will and should have an impact on the school community, and schools will need to identify ways to cultivate contexts where all students’ backgrounds and experiences are celebrated and respected. That is, the students’ cultures will need to be acknowledged because it may potentially impact the students’ behaviors, interests, and in turn, educational outcomes (Jimenez-Gomez & Beaulieu, 2022). When considering cultural differences, one must acknowledge the values and norms established by that community (Snyder & Fenner, 2021). This recognition has the potential for challenges.

A challenge currently faced is the contrast between the rising diversity of students to those of school practitioners, who remain a homogeneous group. More specifically, it has been estimated that 79.30% of public school teachers and 72.50% of BCBAs are White, non-Hispanic (BACB, 2024; National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2020). These racial and ethnic disparities underscore the cultural gaps that exist between practitioners and their students (NCES, 2020). This suggests that many special education teachers and BCBAs are providing services to students whose culture and experiences do not represent their own (Beaulieu et al., 2019; Kelly, 2020). These trends are noteworthy because culture influences one’s identity, values, educational expectations, and behavior (Boveda & Aronson, 2019). Given that culture shapes how students learn, practitioners need to be well equipped to provide services to students from diverse backgrounds (Hoover & Soltero-Gonzalez, 2018).

“Many special education teachers and BCBAs are providing services to students whose culture and experiences do not represent their own.

As Ms. Robinson begins to plan for the upcoming academic year and after reading the students’ IEPs, she acknowledges that she may need to make some changes in her classroom. During a lunch meeting with Mrs. Moore, a close friend and the school district’s BCBA, Ms. Robinson mentions that her classroom will be different this upcoming school year because she will have a more culturally and linguistically diverse group of students. Therefore, she needs to make some changes to her classroom. Ms. Robinson also mentions that she wants to create a more inclusive environment through her classroom management procedures so that all her students feel welcome. Given her new class roster, Ms. Robinson also asked Mrs. Moore for suggestions because she previously worked in a predominately non-White urban school district. Ms. Robinson is excited of the possibility of collaborating with Mrs. Moore; specifically, she is eager to get some advice on how to improve her classroom management and implement the behavior intervention plan for one of her new students, Mohammed.

Mohammed’s IEP also included information indicating a history of behaviors that impact his learning. Because Mrs. Moore will be the service provider for Mohammed and will be assigned to Ms. Robinson’s classroom, they discussed potential behavioral intervention strategies and Mohammed’s specific behavioral needs. To provide Mohammed with individualized supports, Mrs. Moore suggested creating a token economy system with the tokens inspired by the student’s interests and culture. Ms. Robinson wonders if together they can brainstorm better ways to meet the needs of the class because she felt she had limited competencies to effectively consider all students’ background needs. Based on this, they both came up with a list of changes needed, including (a) having the students help establish class rules and (b) increasing the use of culturally responsive behavior-specific praise.

Professional Competencies in Culturally Responsive Practices

Both special education teachers’ and BCBAs’ training programs are tasked with preparing these practitioners by meeting their respective professional organization standards (e.g., BACB, 2022; CEC, 2020). Specifically, for special education teachers, CEC (2020) outlines both a Code of Ethics and preparation standards that incorporate the importance of developing strong relationships with families. CEC also outlines preparation standards that ensure special education teachers have the competencies needed to serve their students, including those from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Both of CEC’s standards acknowledge the importance of knowledge on diversity, developing relationships with families, and how a student’s language, culture, and background may impact their learning (see Figure 1). Similarly, the BACB outlines a professional task list of standards that include the implementation of culturally responsive practices, under the Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts (BACB, 2020). The ethics code highlights acquiring knowledge and skills and maintaining awareness of cultural responsiveness and diversity. The expectation is that BCBAs use nondiscriminatory practices, engage in professional development activities to continue to gain knowledge related to cultural responsiveness, and conduct reflective practices by self-evaluating biases (see Figure 1).

Figure 1

Practitioners’ competence of culturally responsive practices

Although special education teachers and BCBAs have different scopes of competencies, their professional standards overlap in content related to creating safe, equitable, inclusive, and culturally responsive environments (BACB, 2022; CEC, 2020). To ensure such practices are used and that the environment is culturally responsive, collaborative partnerships with families and school practitioners are essential to promote communication, commitment, equality, mutual trust, and mutual respect (Rossetti et al., 2017). These partnerships are essential because culturally and linguistically diverse families have historically been viewed through a deficit-based lens (Harry, 2008). As such, to continuously engage in effective culturally responsive practices, practitioners will need ongoing professional development to stay up to date with the latest research-based interventions (Fong et al., 2016; Hoover & Soltero-Gonzalez, 2018).

Culturally Responsive Practices

Culturally responsive practices are grounded in self-awareness: explicitly, in gaining knowledge and skills in using cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students to create an environment that empowers all students (Gay, 2002; Jimenez-Gomez & Beaulieu, 2022). The goal of culturally responsive practices is to consider students’ backgrounds and incorporate their identities in the classroom to enhance their academic success (Snyder & Fenner, 2021). Implementing such practices, in turn, can lead to better student engagement and academic outcomes and the social and emotional well-being of students (Beaulieu et al., 2019; Cannon & Luckner, 2016; Chu & Garcia, 2014; Hollins et al., 2023). As such, culturally responsive practices should be considered as a continuum where practitioners self-evaluate, gain competencies, and seek ways to enhance and stay current in their practices (see Figure 1).

“Culturally responsive practices should be considered as a continuum where practitioners self-evaluate, gain competencies, and seek ways to enhance and stay current in their practices.

To effectively implement culturally responsive practices, practitioners will also need to acknowledge their experiences, frames of reference, and any potential differences in cultural background between themselves and their students (Madler et al., 2022). For this, practitioners will first need to develop self-awareness by continuously examining personal biases and beliefs that may affect their interactions with others from diverse backgrounds (Fong et al., 2016). By doing so, practitioners will be able to increase their cultural humility skills through the engagement of ongoing reflections and knowledge gaining to better understand and form relationships with diverse students and their families (Jimenez-Gomez & Beaulieu, 2022).

Often, the task of self-evaluation can be determined by completing a self-awareness assessment to identify cultural and personal biases (Beaulieu & Jimenez-Gomez, 2022). These assessments commonly include statements such as (a) being aware of the impact culture has on an individual (e.g., American Speech-Language Hearing Association [ASHA], 2021; Montgomery, 2001), (b) being aware of one’s own cultural experiences (e.g., Beaulieu & Jimenez-Gomez; Kelly, 2020), and (c) not imposing personal beliefs and values on to others (e.g., ASHA, 2010; Beaulieu & Jimenez-Gomez). Figure 2 provides a self-evaluation tool that is grounded in current available literature. The evaluation tool includes 21 of the most common recommendations and assessment considerations for practitioners to reflect on their current practices. Only by cultivating self-awareness can practitioners identify and address their own biases, which, in turn, can help build a more inclusive and equitable environment for the students (Kelly, 2020).

Figure 2

Self-reflection on culturally responsive practices

Beyond self-evaluation, practitioners will also need to acquire knowledge of culturally responsive practices. A starting point could be to gain information about students’ cultures, values, and beliefs (Carrero & Lusk, 2014; Jimenez-Gomez & Beaulieu, 2022). With this knowledge, practitioners can implement practices that will effectively support the students while respecting and acknowledging their experiences (Carrero & Lusk, 2014). Practitioners can also explicitly encourage students to express themselves, actively listen, validate students’ perspectives, and create structured activities that allow opportunities for students to share their cultural experiences and traditions (Najdowski et al., 2021). To better understand the students’ cultures and values, practitioners will also need to collaborate with the students’ families to provide effective and meaningful services (CEC, 2020; Fong et al., 2016).

At the end of October, Ms. Robinson reflects on her implementation of the various classroom management strategies that she and Mrs. Moore had outlined. As she reflected on these, she noticed that Mohammed and Kaitlyn were struggling with following class rules and that Rebecca and Jerimiah did not seem focused during instructional times. For example, Mohammed was having tantrums during transitions, and Kaitlyn was struggling to keep her hands to herself. As such, Ms. Robinson decided to schedule meetings with all her students’ parents or guardians to get more information about students’ interests and their priorities for their children.

During these meetings, beyond collecting information on each student’s interests, Ms. Robinson was able to ask questions to gain a stronger understanding of their cultures and values. For example, Ms. Robinson learned that Rebecca’s family wanted to prioritize skills that would increase her independence at home, Jerimiah’s family valued rule following and respecting adults, and Mohammed’s family hoped he could learn more basic literacy skills to increase his reading ability. After meeting with families, Ms. Robinson scheduled a meeting with Mrs. Moore to consult on the changes needed to the token reward systems and to receive guidance on how to minimize the target behaviors and increase student engagement. Together, they ensured that student-centered, evidence-based practices were implemented with the goal of students feeling respected while making progress in their behavioral and academic goals.

Implementing Culturally Responsive Practices

All students need the opportunity to connect their own experiences to the curriculum and instruction (Banks, 1993). This is especially important because practitioners may unknowingly validate values based on the dominant culture through biases or lack of knowledge, which, in turn, discounts the values and norms from the students’ culture (Melendez et al., 2021; Seidl & Pugach, 2009). In this case, practitioners may select instructional materials or design interventions or implement strategies that are counter to students’ needs, culture, background, or experiences (Kulkarni et al., 2022). As such, the goal of these changes is to decrease cultural inequities that may adversely impact students’ educational performance (Chan et al., 2022; Kulkarni et al., 2022).

To bridge cultural differences between students and service providers, it is essential that practitioners adjust their instructional methods, strategies, and materials to create an environment where students feel comfortable participating (Hoover & Soltero-Gonzalez, 2018). At the same time, these practices can assist practitioners in better understanding their students and how cultural factors and beliefs may impact goal setting and service provisions (Jimenez-Gomez & Beaulieu, 2022; Seidl & Pugach, 2009). Some potential strategies to decrease cross-cultural barriers could be for practitioners to (a) consider visiting the communities in which their students reside (Cormier, 2023), (b) implement schoolwide CRPBIS (Bal, 2018), and (c) identify community members that can assist in the CRPBIS implementation (Bal, 2018). In the end, the goal should be that all strategies considered support all students to achieve higher outcomes in their academic and social-emotional growth. Yet it is noteworthy to take into account that this can only occur by creating an inclusive school environment where all students feel as if they are part of the community (Chu & Garcia, 2014; Levy et al., 2021).

“Preparation programs provide minimal training in culturally responsive teaching.

In a follow-up meeting with Mrs. Moore, Ms. Robinson shared the information obtained from the families, and these two providers brainstormed some potential ideas that considered strategies to make the classroom more inclusive and culturally responsive. Together, they created visuals of the classroom rules that depicted children resembling the students on Ms. Robinson’s caseload. They outlined ways to integrate students’ traditions and cultural values into the classroom activities and routines and followed up with their school team, paraeducators, and other related service providers to ensure that everyone was informed on the importance of integrating these practices across instruction and services.

Ms. Robinson made efforts to identify books for the classroom that were written by diverse authors, included characters from varying backgrounds, and featured important historical events (e.g., Juneteenth). They also added religious days and cultural celebrations to the classroom calendar to ensure all students’ traditions could be celebrated. Soon after these changes were made, Ms. Robinson shared them in a letter to students’ families to foster a collaborative environment, where the families felt that their voices and opinions were acknowledged. Although Ms. Robinson and Mrs. Moore were excited and felt strongly about these changes, they privately discussed how they both felt ill prepared and how they wished learning opportunities were made available to them. They both felt that with the increased number of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, the school district should provide professional development opportunities to help all staff members better serve all the students and their families.

State of Practitioner Training

Unfortunately, it has been suggested that preparation programs provide minimal training in culturally responsive teaching (Kelly, 2020; Miranda et al., 2019). Some special education teacher preparation programs devote a course on teaching culturally and linguistically diverse students, whereas others have a lesson within a course or do not address the topic at all (Boveda & Aronson, 2019; Miranda et al., 2019). In a similar vein, many applied behavior analysis programs do not include diversity, equity, inclusion, and culturally responsive practices in their curricula (Conners et al., 2019; Hilton et al., 2021; Sadykova & Dautermann, 2009). Consequently, it is not surprising that novice practitioners report feeling inadequately prepared when confronted with cultural differences, which then creates cultural challenges (Hilton et al., 2021; Madler et al., 2022).

The inconsistency of preparation programs on culturally responsive practices presents a barrier for those providing services (Hilton et al., 2021; Madler et al., 2022). As such, it is essential that practitioners seek the means needed to develop or enhance their knowledge and skills through professional development opportunities (Hoover & Soltero-Gonzalez, 2018). More specifically, practitioners need explicit training on how to (a) change attitudes and biases, (b) develop empathy to promote an understanding of students’ culture across the school setting, (c) incorporate multicultural education, and (d) implement culturally responsive assessments and practices (Beaulieu et al., 2019; Hilton et al. 2021; Peterson et al., 2020). The goal should be that practitioners’ mindsets are ultimately transformed through knowledge in culturally responsive practices (Kelly, 2020; Melendez et al., 2021; Peterson et al., 2020). Only by becoming a reflective practitioner and self-evaluating one’s own practices and personal biases can one then take steps to resolve interferences of biases to effectively serve students from diverse backgrounds along with their families (Hoover & Soltero-Gonzalez, 2018; Jimenez-Gomez & Beaulieu, 2022).

“Special education teachers and BCBAs can collaborate to create a strong, cohesive practitioner team capable of providing effective and impactful services.

During lunch in December, Ms. Robinson and Mrs. Moore reflected on the past semester and were both amazed that winter break was already approaching. In their conversation, Mrs. Moore shared an article with Ms. Robinson about using self-reflective practices. They both took a moment to think about their interactions with students during the semester and acknowledged the progress they had made. For instance, Ms. Robinson shared that during a lesson on family traditions, she realized that she had unintentionally primarily focused solely on traditions she was familiar with instead of acknowledging the diverse traditions of her students. To address this, Ms. Robinson adjusted her lesson plan to encourage students to share their unique family traditions and incorporate them into the lesson. Specifically, Ms. Robinson incorporated an activity where students shared a family tradition that was important to them. She created a bulletin board where students could display pictures related to their traditions and provided opportunities for each student to share and learn about each other’s customs.

Similarly, Mrs. Moore shared that she had suggested to several teachers she collaborates with to increase their use of behavior-specific praise. As she reflected on her suggestions, she realized that she unthinkingly provided examples and nonexamples that were relevant to a cultural group in these teachers’ caseloads. She mentioned that to alleviate this situation, she went back to each teacher and provided explicit suggestions and examples that considered each student’s backgrounds and culture. During this conversation, both practitioners identified moments where personal biases might have negatively impacted their relationships and practices with the students, including lower expectations and disproportionate discipline. Ms. Robinson and Mrs. Moore found the self-reflection exercise moving and decided to incorporate it into their regular practice to continue to grow as culturally responsive practitioners.

Lessons Learned

Developing self-awareness, gaining knowledge, developing skills, and skill maintenance are the foundations of using culturally responsive practices (Gay, 2002; Jimenez-Gomez & Beaulieu, 2022). Special education teachers and BCBAs can collaborate to create a strong, cohesive practitioner team capable of providing effective and impactful services to students with disabilities from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds (Giangreco et al., 2023). To effectively implement such practices, practitioners will need to consider ongoing professional development endeavors. Continuous learning opportunities and the implementation of culturally responsive practices should be an ongoing and dynamic process that involves a commitment to self-reflection, self-education, and professional growth. Only by actively seeking to understand the cultural backgrounds, experiences, and perspectives of students and their families can practitioners create inclusive and engaging learning environments that celebrate diversity and foster positive outcomes for all students regardless of their abilities (Beaulieu et al., 2019; Boveda & Aronson, 2019).

To continue to develop as a professional and provide high-quality services to all students, practitioners should engage in professional development opportunities, such as workshops, seminars, and conferences, to deepen their understanding of culturally responsive practices and expand their repertoire of strategies and techniques (Beaulieu et al., 2019; Hoover & Soltero-Gonzalez, 2018). Online modules that focus on culturally responsive practices could also be a means of gaining knowledge, for example, those from the Collaboration for Effective Educator Development, Accountability, and Reform Center (2023), the IRIS Center (2025), the Pyramid Model Consortium (2021), and BehaviorLive (2025). By staying up to date with the latest research, best practices, and innovative approaches in the field, practitioners can continuously enhance their knowledge and skills and ensure they are equipped to meet the unique needs of all their students, including those from diverse backgrounds (Jimenez-Gomez & Beaulieu, 2022).

As they were approaching the end of the school year, Ms. Robinson and Mrs. Moore felt that through their collaborative efforts, they were able to create enriching, culturally responsive learning environments for the students in Ms. Robinson’s class and Mrs. Moore’s caseload. As they reflected on their work for this year, they realized that they both had minimal training in using culturally responsive practices. Yet they were proud of their collaborative efforts to implement culturally responsive strategies in the classroom. More specifically, Ms. Robinson felt that incorporating discussions of current events related to diversity, such as celebrating Hispanic Heritage Month, engaged her students in meaningful conversations about culture and equity.

Based on the experience that they had this year, Ms. Robinson and Mrs. Moore decided they wanted formal training and that all school staff might benefit from professional development in using culturally responsive practices. They talked to their school principal, Dr. Smalls, about having a session on culturally responsive practices during their professional development day at the end of the school year. They advocated for a follow-up training in August to ensure everyone was current on best practices in time for the next school year.

As Ms. Robinson was packing up her classroom for summer break, Mrs. Barker, a first-grade general education teacher, walked into the room. Mrs. Barker told Ms. Robinson that in her 16 years of teaching, she had never experienced a professional development like the one they had the day before. Mrs. Barker said she loved the cultural self-identity reflection activity where she identified her values and reflected on her upbringing. Mrs. Barker could not wait for the next school year to implement the various tips she learned in her classroom. Ms. Alvarado, a special education teacher, overheard the conversation and joined in. The teachers discussed their excitement about the schoolwide initiative to incorporate culturally responsive practices across all classrooms. They all expressed their desire to volunteer for the diversity, equity, and inclusion initiative committee that Mr. Smalls announced at the end of the professional development day.

In summary, the journey of incorporating culturally responsive practices and cultivating cultural humility into instructional programs for students with disabilities will require ongoing commitment and self-reflection (Hilton et al., 2021). By developing self-awareness, acquiring knowledge, implementing skills, and maintaining those skills, practitioners may be able to create inclusive, culturally affirming, and effective learning environments that comprehensively support the academic, social, behavioral, and emotional success of all students (Gay, 2002; Jimenez-Gomez & Beaulieu, 2022). Only by recognizing the differences and dynamic nature of cultures and lived experiences can practitioners understand that they can never be fully competent in understanding others’ cultures without continuous learning and self-reflection (Filingeri et al., 2023). Consequently, to be continuous learners themselves, all practitioners should be willing to share their knowledge and any useful resources while maintaining an open, collaborative dialogue with the students, their families, and other professionals. The open lines of communication will allow for further growth and understanding of the ever-evolving needs of diverse student populations, which will foster a more inclusive and equitable educational experience for all students.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Robert Hodapp for his help, guidance, and feedback with this article.

Declaration Of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDS

M. Alexandra Da Fonte

Brittney L. Goscicki

Notes

Hanneh S. Shiheiber-Gilmer, M. Alexandra Da Fonte, and Brittney L. Goscicki, Department of Special Education, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee

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