Why does the United States lag behind so many other countries on international education assessments? The traditional view targets school-based explanations—U.S. schools attract poorer teachers and lack the proper incentives. But the U.S. educational system may also serve children with comparatively greater academic challenges as a result of poorer social conditions. One way of gaining leverage on this issue is to understand when U.S. students fall behind their international counterparts. I first compare reading/vocabulary test scores for U.S. and Canadian children (ages 4-5) using National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1979–Children and Youth (NLSY79) and Canada’s National Longitudinal Study of Children and Youth (NLSCY). I then compare the magnitude of these differences to similar cohorts of students at ages 15 to 16 using data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Findings indicate that while the Canadian advantage in PISA is substantial (0.30 standard deviation units), this advantage already existed at ages 4 to 5, before formal schooling had a chance to matter. I discuss the implications of this pattern for interpreting international test score rankings.
AkibaMotokoLeTendreGerald K.ScribnerJay P.2007. “Teacher Quality, Opportunity Gap, and National Achievement in 46 Countries.” Educational Researcher36(7):369-87.
2.
AlexanderKarl L.EntwisleDoris R.OlsonLinda Steffel. 2007. “Lasting Consequences of the Summer Learning Gap.” American Sociological Review72(2):167-80.
3.
Asia Society. 2006. Math and Science Education in a Global Age: What the U.S. Can Learn from China. New York, NY: Author.
4.
BakerDavid P.1993. “Compared to Japan, the U.S. Is a Low Achiever . . . Really: New Evidence and Comment on Westbury.” Educational Researcher22(3):18-20.
5.
BakerDavid P.FabregaRodrigoGalindoClaudiaMishookJacob. 2004. “Instructional Time and National Achievement: Cross-national Evidence.” Prospects34(3):311-34.
6.
BakerDavid P.LeeJaekyungHeynemanStephen. 2003. “Should American Be More Like Them? Cross-national High School Achievement and U.S. Policy.” Brookings Papers on Education Policy6:309-38.
7.
BoothAlanCrouterAnn C.2008. Disparities in School Readiness: How Families Contribute to Transitions into School. London: CRC Press.
8.
BradyDavid. 2009. Rich Democracies, Poor People: How Politics Explain Poverty. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
9.
BüttnerBettinaThompsenStephan L.2010. “Are We Wasting Our Time at School? New and Recent Evidence on the Impact of Shortening the Length of Secondary Schooling.” Working Paper No. 8, Faculty of Economics and Management Madeburg.
10.
Center on the Developing Child. 2011. Faculty Spotlight: Gunther Fink—Creating a New Measure of Child Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.
11.
Center for Public Education. 2011. Back to School: How Parent Involvement Affects Student Achievement. Alexandria, VA: National School Boards Association.
12.
ChettyRajFriedmanJohn N.RockoffJonah E.2011. The Long-term Impacts of Teachers: Teacher Value-added and Student Outcomes in Adulthood. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
ChudgarAmitaLuscheiThomas F.2009. “National Income, Income Inequality, and the Importance of Schools: A Hierarchical Cross-national Comparison.” American Educational Research Journal46(3):626-58.
15.
CIA. 2011a. The World Fact Book: Gini Index. Washington, DC: Author.
16.
CIA. 2011b. The World Fact Book: The United States of America—People and Society. Washington, DC: Author.
17.
CIA. 2012. The World Fact Book: Filed Listing: Population below Poverty Line. Washington, DC: Author.
18.
Common Core State Standards Initiative. 2011. “Mission Statement.” Retrieved December 19, 2012 (http://www.corestandards.org).
19.
CondronDennis. 2011. “Egalitarianism and Educational Excellence.” Educational Researcher40(2):47-55.
20.
ConleyDaltonBennettNeil G.2000. “Is Biology Destiny? Birth Weight and Life Chances.” American Sociological Review65(3):458-67.
DaviesScottHammackFloyd M.2005. “The Channeling of Student Competition in Higher Education: Comparing Canada and the U.S.” Journal of Higher Education76(1):89-106.
23.
DillonSam. 2010. “In PISA Test, Top Scores from Shanghai Stun Educators.” The New York Times, December7.
24.
DowneyDouglas B.1994. “The School Performance of Children from Single-mother and Single-father Families: Economic or Interpersonal Deprivation?”Journal of Family Issues15(1):129-47.
25.
DowneyDouglas B.von HippelPaul T.BrohBeckett A.2004. “Are Schools the Great Equalizer? Cognitive Inequality during the Summer Months and the School Year.” American Sociological Review69(5):613-35.
26.
DowneyDouglas B.von HippelPaul T.HughesMelanie. 2008. “Are ‘Failing’ Schools Really Failing? Using Seasonal Comparison to Evaluate School Effectiveness.” Sociology of Education81(3):242-70.
27.
DuncanGreg J.DowsettChantelle J.ClaessensAmyMagnusonKatherineHustonAletha C.KlebanovPamelaPaganiLinda S.FeinsteinLeonEngelMimiBrooks-GunnJeanneSextonHollyDuckworthKathrynJapelCrista. 2007. “School Readiness and Later Achievement.” Developmental Psychology43(6):1428-46.
28.
DuncanGreg J.MagnusonKatherine. 2011. “The Nature and Impact of Early Achievement Skills, Attention Skills, and Behavior Problems.” Pp. 47-69 in Whither Opportunity: Rising Inequality, Schools and Children’s Life Chances, edited by DuncanG. J.MurnaneR. J.New York: Russell Sage.
29.
DunnLloyd M.DunnLeota M.1981. Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test–Revised. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
30.
EntwisleDoris R.AlexanderKarl L.1992. “Summer Setback: Race, Poverty, School Composition, and Mathematics Achievement in the First Two Years of School.” American Sociological Review57(1):72-84.
31.
Esping-AndersonGosta. 2007. “Soicological Explanations of Changing Income Distributions.” American Behavioral Scientist50:639-58.
32.
FergusonH. B.BovairdS.MuellerM. P.2007. “The Impact of Poverty on Educational Outcomes for Children.” Paediatrics & Child Health12(8):701-06.
33.
The Finland Phenomenon [DVD]. 2011. Memphis, TN: True South Studios LLC.
34.
FischerClaude S.HoutMichaelJankowskiMartin SanchezLucasSamuel R.SwidlerAnnVosKim. 1996. Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
35.
FuchsThomasWoessmannLudger. 2007. “What Accounts for International Differences in Student Performance? A Re-examination Using PISA Data.” Empirical Economics32(2-3):433-64.
36.
GaffieldChad. 1994. “Children’s Lives and Academic Achievement in Canada and the United States.” Comparative Education Review38(1):36-64.
37.
GordonRobertKaneThomas J.StaigerFouglas O.2006. “Identifying Effective Teachers Using Performance on the Job.” Hamilton Project: Discussion Papers1.
38.
GreenwaldRobHedgesLarry V.LaineRichard D.1996. “The Effect of School Resources on Student Achievement.” Review of Educational Research66(3):361-96.
39.
GrodskyEricWarrenJohn RobertKalogridesDemetra. 2008. “State High School Exit Examinations and NAEP Long-term Trends in Reading and Mathematics, 1971-2004.” Educational Policy23:589-614.
40.
Hampden-Thompson. 2009. “Are Two Better Than One? A Comparative Study of Achievement Gaps and Family Structure.” Compare: A Journal of Comparative & International Education39(4):513-29.
41.
HanWen-JuiWaldfogelJaneBrooks-GunnJeanne. 2001. “The Effects of Early Maternal Employment on Later Cognitive and Behavioral Outcomes.” Journal of Marriage and Family63(2):336-54.
42.
HanushekEric A.2004. “Our School Performance Matters.” Journal of Education185(3):1-6.
43.
HanushekEric A.2011. “The Economic Value of Higher Teacher Quality.” Economics of Education Review30(3):466-79.
44.
HeynsBarbara. 1978. Summer Learning and the Effects of Schooling. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
45.
HirschE. D.Jr.2006. The Knowledge Deficit: Closing the Shocking Education Gap for American Children. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
46.
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. 2011. “Canada in Context—Immigration.” Ontario, Canada: Author.
47.
KamensDavid H.McNeelyConnie L.2010. “Globalization and the Growth of International Educational Testing and National Assessment.” Comparative Education Review54(1):5-25.
48.
KenworthyLane. 2011. Progress for the Poor. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
49.
LaddHelen. 2012. “Education and Poverty: Confronting the Evidence.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management31:203-27.
50.
LallGeeta RaniLallBernard M.1983. Comparative Early Childhood Education. New York: Thomas.
51.
LasserKaren E.HimmelsteinDavid U.WoolhandlerSteffie. 2006. “Access to Care, Health Status, and Health Disparities in the United States and Canada: Results of a Cross-national Population-based Survey.” American Journal of Public Health96(7):1300-07.
52.
LeeValerie E.BurkhamDavid T.2002. Inequality at the Starting Gate: Social Background Differences in Achievement as Children Begin School. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.
53.
LevinBenjamin. 2008. How to Change 5000 Schools: A Practical and Positive Approach for Leading Change at Every Level. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
54.
LevinBenjamin. 2011. “Comparing Canada and the U.S. on Education.” Education Week: The Futures of School Reform, April4.
55.
LipsetSeymour. 1990. Continental Divide: The Values and Institutions of the United States and Canada. New York: Routledge.
56.
LynchJamie L.2011. “Infant Health, Race/Ethnicity, and Early Educational Outcomes Using the ECLS-B.” Sociological Inquiry81(4):499-526.
57.
Migration Policy Institute. 2010. Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States. Washington, DC: Author.
58.
Migration Policy Institute. 2011. Canada’s Immigration Policy: A Focus on Human Capital. Washington, DC: Author.
59.
National Center for Education Statistics. 2010. Highlights from PISA 2009: Performance of U.S. 15 Year-old Students in Reading, Mathematics, and Science Literacy in an International Context. Washington, DC: Author.
60.
National Longitudinal Surveys. 2004. NLSCY79 Child & Young Adult: Users Guide. Washington, DC: Author.
61.
OECD. 2009. PISA 2009 Assessment Framework—Key Competencies in Reading, Mathematics and Science. Paris: Author.
62.
OECD. 2010. “Ontario, Canada: Reform to Support High Achievement in a Diverse Context.” In Strong Performers and Successful Reformers in Education: Lessons from PISA for the United States. Paris: Author.
63.
OECD. 2011a. Quality Time for Students: Learning in and out of School. Paris: Author.
64.
OECD. 2011b. What Can Parents Do to Help Their Children Succeed in School. Paris: Author.
65.
OgmundsonRichard. 2002. “The Canadian Case: Cornucopia of Neglected Research Opportunities.” The American Sociologist33(1):55-78.
PinarWilliam. 1995. Understanding Curriculum: An Introduction to the Study of Historical and Contemporary Curriculum Discourses. Bern: Peter Lang Publishing.
68.
PischkeJörn-Steffen. 2007. “The Impact of Length of the School Year on Student Performance and Earnings: Evidence from the German Short School Years.” Economic Journal117(523):1216-42.
69.
PodairJerald E.2004. The Strike That Changed New York: Blacks, Whites, and the Ocean Hill-Brownsville Crisis. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
70.
RankMark Robert. 2004. One Nation, Underprivileged: Why American Poverty Affects Us All. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
71.
ReadyDouglas D.2010. “Socioeconomic Disadvantage, School Attendance, and Early Cognitive Development.” Sociology of Education83(4):271-86.
72.
ReardonSean. 2011. “The Widening Academic Achievement Gap between the Rich and Poor: New Evidence and Possible Explanations.” Pp. 91-115 in Whither Opportunity: Rising Inequality, Schools and Children’s Life Chances, edited by DuncanG. J.MurnaneR. J.New York: Russell Sage.
73.
ReidT. R.2009. The Healing of America: A Global Quest for Better, Cheaper, and Fairer Health Care. New York: Penguin Press.
74.
RoscignoVincent J.1998. “Race and the Reproduction of Educational Disadvantage.” Social Forces76(3):1033-61.
75.
RothsteinR.2004. Class and Schools: Using Social, Economic, and Educational Reform to Close the Achievement Gap. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.
76.
SilvaElena. 2007. On the Clock: Rethinking the Way Schools Use Time. Washington, DC: Education Sector.
77.
Statistics Canada. 2006. Visible Minority Population, by Age Group (2006 Census). Ottawa, Canada: Author.
78.
Statistics Canada. 2008. Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Ottawa, Canada: Author.
79.
Statistics Canada: Special Surveys Division. 2007. NLSCY User Guide English. Ottawa, Canada: Author.
80.
TuckerMark S.2011. “Researching Other Countries’ Education Systems: Why It’s Indispensable but Tricky, How We Did It, Why This Time It’s Different.” Pp. 1-18 in Surpassing Shanghai: An Agenda for American Education Built on the World’s Leading Systems, edited by TuckerM. S.Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
81.
UNESCO. 2010. Global Education Digest 2010: Comparing Education Statistics across the World. Washington, DC: Author.
82.
von HippelPaul T.2007. “Regression with Missing Ys: An Improved Strategy for Analyzing Multiply Imputed Data.” Sociological Methodology37(1):83-117.
83.
WagnerTony. 2008. The Global Achievement Gap: Why Even Our Best Schools Don’t Teach the New Survival Skills Our Children Need—And What We Can Do about It. New York: Basic Books.
84.
WalbergHerbert J.1984. “Families as Partners in Educational Productivity.” Phi Delta Kappan65(6):397-400.
85.
WalbergHerbert J.BastJoseph Lee. 2003. Education and Capitalism: How Overcoming Our Fear of Markets and Economics Can Improve America’s Schools. Stanford, CA: Hoover Press.
86.
WarrenJohn RobertGrodskyEricLeeJennifer C.2008. “State High School Exit Examinations and Postsecondary Labor Market Outcomes.” Sociology of Education81(1):77-107.
87.
WilliamsKathleen T.WangJing-Jen. 1997. Technical References to the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test–Third Edition (PPVT-III). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Services, Inc.
88.
WillmsJ. Douglas. 2004. Reading Achievement in Canada and the United States: Findings from the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment. Quebec, Canada: Human Resources and Skills Development Canada.
89.
World Health Organization. 2004. Low Birthweight: Country, Regional, and Global Estimates. Geneva: Author.
90.
WuLawrence L.LiJui-Chung Allen. 2005. “Children of the NLSY79: A Unique Data Resource.” Monthly Labor Review128:59-62.
91.
ZhaoYong. 2009. Catching Up or Leading the Way: American Education in the Age of Globalization. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development.
92.
ZuberiDan. 2006. Differences That Matter: Social Policy and the Working Poor in the United States and Canada. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press/Cornell University Press.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
