Kidnapping is a crime that has not received due attention in sociological literature. Policy and risk assessment milieux discursively construct it as a ‘threat to society’, and administrative studies have focused on classifications that describe the phenomenon. The most widespread typology of kidnapping incidents takes as a starting point criminal motivation, producing a bipolar analysis of the crime as economic or political. This article re-examines classificatory and discursive approaches, placing emphasis on the social logic of kidnapping. It is argued that kidnapping presents all the characteristics of a rationalized system of exchange, based on rules and regulations reminiscent of legitimate business. The way that these regulations are described by state authorities or private agents alike allows us an in-depth analysis of the crime itself.
Aljazeera Net (13 April 2004) ‘Iraq’s Postwar Kidnapping Crime Wave News’, URL (consulted Oct. 2004).
2.
Auerbach, A. H. (1998) Ransom: The Untold Story of International Kidnapping. New York: Henry Bolt & Co.
3.
Battle, J. (10 April 2001) ‘The Kidnapping Business’, URL (consulted May 2003): http://www.ci-ce-ct.com/article/showquestion.asp?faq/3fldAuto/995
4.
Baumann, C. E. (1973) Diplomatic Kidnappings: A Revolutionary Tactic of Urban Terrorism. The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff .
5.
Baumann, C. E. (1985) ‘Diplomatic Kidnappings’, in B. M. Jenkins (ed.) Terrorism and Personal Protection, pp. 23-45. Boston, MA: Butterworth Publishers .
6.
Beasley-Murray, J. (2000) ‘Value and Capital in Bourdieu and Marx’, in N. Brown and I. Szeman (eds) Pierre Bourdieu: Fieldwork in Culture, pp. 100-109. Linham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield .
7.
Blinkhorn, M. (2000) ‘Liability, Responsibility and Blame: British Ransom Victims in the Mediterranean Periphery, 1860-1881’ , Australian Journal of Politics and History1(3): 336-356 .
8.
Bourdieu, P. (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
9.
Bourdieu, P. (1984) Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, trans. Richard Nice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press .
10.
Bourdieu, P. (1994) ‘Re-thinking the State: On the Genesis and Structure of the Bureaucratic Field’ , Sociological Theory12: 1-19 .
11.
Bourdieu, P. (1998) Practical Reason: On the Theory of Action, trans. R. Johnson. Cambridge: Polity .
12.
Boyle, C. E. (10 July 2000) ‘In the Underworld: Kidnapping, Hostage-Taking and Extortion on the Rise’ , Insurance Journal, URL (consulted May 2003): http://www.insurancejournal.com/magazines/Southcentral/2000/07/10/coverstory/22644.htm
13.
Briggs, R. (2001) The Kidnapping Business. London: Foreign Policy Centre .
14.
Capotorto, G. (1985) ‘How Terrorists Look at Kidnappings’, in B. M. Jenkins (ed.) Terrorism and Personal Protection, pp. 2-7. Boston, MA: Butterworth Publishers .
15.
Clarke, R. (1992) Situational Crime Prevention. New York: Harrow and Heston .
16.
Clarke, R. and M. Felson (eds) (1993) Routine Activity and Rational Choice. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction .
17.
Clutterbuck, R. (1978) Kidnap & Ransom: The Response. London: Faber .
18.
CNN (August 1999), URL (consulted May 2003): http://www.cnn.com
19.
CNN (April-July 2000), URL (consulted May 2003): http://www.cnn.com
20.
CNN (May-June 2001), URL (consulted May 2003): http://www.cnn.com
21.
De Certeau, M. (1984) The Practice of Everyday Life, trans. S. Rendal. Berkeley: University of California Press .
22.
Dickie, J. (1993) ‘A Word at War: The Italian Army and Brigandage 1860-1870’ , History Workshop Journal33: 1-24 .
23.
Dickie, J. (1999) Darkest Italy: The Nation and Stereotypes on the Mezzogiorno, 1860-1900. New York: St. Martin’s Press .
24.
ECA (1 April 2003) ‘Kidnap!’, URL (consulted May 2003): http://www.ecainternational.com
25.
Elias, N. (1978) The Civilising Process (I: The History of Manners). Oxford: Blackwell .
26.
Elias, N. (1982) The Civilising Process (II: State Formation and Civilisation). Oxford: Blackwell .
27.
ERRI (30 April 1997) Vol. III: 120, URL (consulted May 2006): http://www.emergency.com/latnkdnp.htm
28.
ERRI (15 May 1997) Vol. III: 135, URL: http://www.emergency.com/kdnap.htm
29.
Gallagher, R. J. (1985) ‘Kidnapping the United Sates and the Development of Federal Kidnapping Statute’, in B. M. Jenkins (ed.) Terrorism and Personal Protection, pp. 129-145. Boston, MA: Butterworth Publishers .
30.
Gallant T. W. (1999) ‘Brigandage, Piracy, Capitalism, and State-Formation: Transnational Crime from a Historical World-Systems Perspective’, in J. McC. Heyman (ed.) States and Illegal Practices, pp. 25-61. Oxford: Berg .
31.
Gerrits, R. P. J. M. (1992) ‘Terrorist’s Perspectives: Memoirs’, in D. L. Paletz and A. P. Schmid (eds) Terrorism and the Media, pp. 29-85. London: Sage .
32.
Gerth, H. H. and C. W. Mills (1948) From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul .
33.
Giddens, A. (1994) ‘Living in a Post-traditional Society’, in U. Beck , A. Giddens and S. Lash (eds) Reflexive Modernisation, Politics, Tradition and Aesthetics in the Modern Social Order, pp. 56-109. Cambridge: Polity .
34.
Goffman, E. (1967) Interaction Ritual. London: Pantheon .
35.
Goffman, E. (1969) The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Harmondsworth: Penguin .
36.
Goldberg, K. (7 September 2000) ‘Kidnapping Becomes Growth Industry’, BBC, URL (consulted May 2006): http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/914448.stm
37.
Greisman, H. (1977) ‘Social Meanings of Terrorism’ , Contemporary Crises1: 303-318 .
38.
Herzfeld, M. (1987) Anthropology through the Looking-Glass: Critical Ethnography in the Margins of Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
39.
Hess, H. (2003) ‘Like Zealots and Romans: Terrorism and the Empire in the 21st Century’ , Crime, Law and Social Change39: 339-357 .
40.
Hobbs, D. (2001) ‘The Firm: Organisational Logic and Criminal Culture on a Shifting Terrain’ , British Journal of Criminology41: 549-560 .
41.
Hobsbawm E. J. (1972) Bandits. New York: Weidenfeld and Nicolson .
42.
Hobsbawm E. J. (2000) Bandits. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson .
43.
Hobsbawm, E. J. (1959) Primitive Rebels. Manchester: Manchester University Press .
44.
Insight (27 November 2001) ‘Stolen Kids Become Pawns in Terror War’, URL (consulted May 2003): http://www.insightmag.com/main.cfm?include=detail& storyid=150573
45.
Jamieson, A. (2000) The Anti-Mafia: Italy’s Fight Against Organised Crime. London: Macmillan .
46.
Japan Today (3 September 2001), URL (consulted May 2003): http://www.japantoday.com/gidx/news209525.html
47.
Jenkins, B. M. (1974) Terrorism and Kidnapping. RAND Paper Series, P-5255. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation .
48.
Jenkins, B. M. (1985) ‘The Payment of Ransom’, in B. M. Jenkins (ed.) Terrorism and Personal Protection, pp. 222-231. Boston, MA: Butterworth Publishers .
49.
Jenkins, B. M. and J. Johnson (1975) International Terrorism: A Chronology. 1968-1974. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation .
50.
Jenkins, B. M. , J. Johnson and D. Ronfeldt (1977) Numbered Lives: Some Statistical Observations from 77 International Hostage Episodes. RAND Paper Series, P-5905. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation .
51.
Larson, C. U. (1973) Persuasion: Reception and Responsibility. Belemont, CA: Wadsworth .
52.
Levi, M. (2002) ‘The Organisation of Serious Crimes’, in M. Maguire , R. Morgan and R. Reiner (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 3rd edn, pp. 878-913. Oxford: Oxford University Press .
53.
Loader, I. (1999) ‘Consumer Culture and the Commodification of Policy and Security’ , Sociology33(2): 373-392 .
54.
Loader, I. and R. Sparks (2002) ‘Contemporary Landscapes of Crime, Order and Control: Governance, Risk and Globalisation’, in M. Maguire , R. Morgan and R. Reiner (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 3rd edn, pp. 83-111. Oxford: Oxford University Press: .
55.
Marshall, E. (1974) ‘Kidnapping Epidemic: A Form of Political Terrorism’ , New Republic170: 15-16 .
56.
Marx, K. (1973) Capital, trans. I. Ben Fowkes. New York: Vintage .
57.
Means, J. (1970) ‘Political Kidnapping and Terrorism’ , North American Review255: 16-19 .
58.
Miller, A. H. (1980) Terrorism and Hostage Negotiations. Boulder, CO: Westview Press .
59.
Najmuddin, D. (1973) ‘The Kidnapping of Diplomatic Personnel’ , Police Chief40(2): 18-23 .
60.
Naylor, R. (2002) Wages of Crimes: Black Markets, Illegal Finance and the Underworld Economy. New York: Cornwell University Press .
61.
NCIS (1999/2000) ‘How Organised Groups Operate’, URL (consulted May 2006): www.ncis.gov.uk/downloads/HOCO_Fraud.pdf
62.
NCIS (8 August 2001) ‘Organised Crime Poses a Great Threat to the UK’, URL (consulted May 2003): http://www.ncis.co.uk/ke.asp
63.
RAND (n.d.) ‘The Origins of RAND’, URL (consulted May 2006): http://www.rand.org/about/history/%23origins
64.
Robinson, J. (2002) The Merger: The International Conglomerate of Organized Crime. London: Penguin .
65.
Rose, N. (1996) ‘The Death of the Social: Refiguring the Territory of the Government’ , Economy and Society25(3): 327-356 .
66.
Sater, F. W. (1985) ‘Terrorist Kidnappings in Colombia’, in B. M. Jenkins (ed.) Terrorism and Personal Protection, pp. 113-128. Boston, MA: Butterworth Publishers .
67.
Schiller, D. T. (1985) ‘The European Experience’, in B. M. Jenkins (ed.) Terrorism and Personal Protection, pp. 46-63. Boston, MA: Butterworth Publishers .
68.
Schmid, A. P. (1992) ‘Editors’ Perspectives’, in D. L. Paletz and A. P. Schmid (eds) Terrorism and the Media, pp. 111-136. London: Sage .
69.
Schmid, A. P. (1998) ‘Terrorism and Democracy’, in A. P. Schmid and R. D. Crelinsten (eds) Western Responses to Terrorism, pp. 7-13. Portland, OR: Frank Cass .
70.
Smith, D. C. (1991) ‘Wickersham to Sutherland to Katzenbach: Evolving an “Official” Definition of Organized Crime’ , Crime, Law and Social Change16(2): 135-154 .
71.
Soulier, G. (1978) ‘European Integration and the Suppression of Terrorism’ , Review of Contemporary Law2(2): 21-45 .
72.
Stechel, I. (1972) ‘Terrorist Kidnapping of Diplomatic Personnel’ , Cornell International Law Journal5: 189-217 .
73.
STI (2000), URL (consulted May 2003): http://64.127.195.54/company_introduction.htm
74.
Sutherland, E. (1949) White Collar Crime. New York: Dryden Press .
75.
Taylor, I. (1999) Crime in Context: A Critical Criminology of Market Societies. Cambridge: Polity .
76.
The Independent (10 April 2004), URL (consulted May 2004): http://news.independent.co.uk/world.middle_east/article55575.ece
77.
The Nation (10 May 2002) URL (consulted May 2004): http://www.accordplan.net/press/20050223.htmThe Times (27 August 1997).
78.
The Washington Post (17 September 2002), URL (consulted May 2003): http://www.rose-human.edu/%7Edelacova/mexico/kidnapping.htm
79.
Thompson, J. (1994) Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns. State-Building and Extraterritorial Violence in Early Modern Europe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
80.
Tilly, C. (2003) The Politics of Collective Violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
81.
Tishkov, V. (2001) ‘The Culture of Hostage-Taking in Chechnya’, in A. P. SchmidCountering Terrorism Through International Cooperation. Milan: International Scientific and Professional Advisory Council of the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Programme .
82.
Turner, M. (1995) ‘Terrorism and Secession in the Southern Philippines’ , Contemporary Southeast Asia17: 1-19 .
83.
Turner, M. (1998) ‘Kidnapping and Politics’ , International Journal of the Sociology of Law26: 145-160 .
84.
Turner, V. (1974) Dramas, Fields and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press .
85.
UN (2003a) ‘Provisional Agenda, Annotations and Timetable’, 12th Session of the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, 13-22 May 2003, Vienna, Austria , E/CN.15/2003/1: 3-3.
86.
UN (2003b) ‘International Cooperation in the Prevention, Combating and Elimination of Kidnapping and in Providing Assistance to Victims’, 12th Session of the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, 13-22 May 2003, Vienna, Austria , E/CN.15/2003/7: 6-6.
87.
UN (2003c) ‘International Cooperation in the Prevention, Combating and Elimination of Kidnapping and in Providing Assistance to Victims’, 12th Session of the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, 13-22 May 2003, Vienna, Austria , E/CN.15/2003/7/Add.1: 3-3.
88.
Warren, J. F. (1985) The Sulu Zone 1768-1898. New Day: Quezon City .
89.
Weber, M. (1985) The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. London: Unwin Hyman .
90.
Weber, M. (2002) ‘Basic Sociological Terms’, in Craig Calhoun , Joseph Gerteis , James Moody , Steven Pfaff , Kathryn Schmidt , and Indermohan Virk (eds) Classical Sociological Theory, pp. 178-188. Oxford: Blackwell .
91.
Woodiwiss, M. (1988) Crime, Crusades and Corruption: Prohibitions in the United States, 1900-1987. London: Pinter .
92.
Young, J. (1986) ‘The Failure of Criminology: The Need for a Radical Realism’, in R. Matthews and J. Young (eds) Confronting Crime, pp. 4-30. London: Sage .
93.
Young, J. (1992) ‘Ten Points of Realism’, in J. Young and R. Matthews (eds) Rethinking Criminology, pp. 24-68. London: Sage
94.
Zannoni, E. (2003) ‘Understanding and Managing the Threat of Kidnapping’ , Telematic Journal of Clinical Criminology, URL (consulted May 2003): http:www.icaa.it/criminologia/articoli/articoli_pdf/sicurezza_pdf/understanding_managing_threatofkidnapping.pdf: 1-4.
