Few studies have addressed the efficacy of counseling and psychotherapy for individuals with mild mental retardation, and no research has investigated the working alliance and psychotherapy outcomes for individuals with mental retardation. This study used existing survey data to examine the relationship between the level of working alliance and rehabilitation counseling outcomes for individuals with mild mental retardation. Results indicated a positive relationship between levels of working alliance and positive rehabilitation outcomes for people with mild mental retardation. This article examines effect sizes and discusses implications for rehabilitation counselors working with individuals with mild mental retardation.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Al-Darmaki, F., & Kivlighan, D.M. (1993). Congruence in client— counselor expectations for relationship and the working alliance. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 40, 379—384.
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision).Washington, DC: Author.
3.
Bolton, B., Bellini, J., & Brookings, J. (2000). Predicting client employment outcomes from personal history, functional limitations, and rehabilitation services. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 44, 10—21.
4.
Bordin, E. (1994). Theory and research on the therapeutic working alliance: New directions. In A. Horvath & L. Greenberg (Eds.), The working alliance: Theory, research and practice (pp. 13—37). New York : Wiley.
5.
Bordin, H. (1979). The generalizability of the psychoanalytic concept of the working alliance. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 16, 252—260.
6.
Borthwick-Duffy, S.A. (1994). Epidemiology and prevalence of psychopathology in people with mental retardation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 17—27.
7.
Chan, F., Shaw, L., McMahon, B., Koch, L., & Strauser, D. (1997). A model for enhancing rehabilitation counselor—consumer working relationships. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin , 41, 122—134.
8.
Coelho, R.J., & Saunders, J.L. (1996). Diagnostic implications of dual diagnosis: Mental retardation and mental illness. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 27(4), 19—24.
9.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
10.
Connors, G., Carroll, K., DiClemente, C., Longabaugh, R., & Donovan, D. (1997). The therapeutic alliance and its relationship to alcoholism treatment participation and outcome. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 588—598.
11.
Fletcher, R.J. (1988). A county systems model: Comprehensive services for the dually diagnosed. In J. A. Stark , F. J. Menolascino, M. H. Albarelli, & V. C. Gray (Eds.), Mental retardation and mental health: Classification, diagnosis, treatment services (pp. 254—264). New York : Springer-Verlag.
12.
Gelso, C., & Carter, J. (1985). The relationship in counseling and therapy: Components, consequences and theoretical antecedents. The Counseling Psychologist , 13, 155—243.
13.
Goering, P., Wasylenki, D., Lindsay, S., Lemire, D., & Rhodes, A. (1997). Process and outcome in a hostel outreach program for homeless clients with severe mental illness. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 67, 607—617.
14.
Horvath, A. (1994). Research on the alliance. In A. Horvath & L. Greenberg (Eds.), The working alliance: Theory, research and practice (pp. 259—286). New York: Wiley .
15.
Horvath, A., & Greenberg, L. (1989). Development and validation of the working alliance inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, 223—233.
16.
Horvath, A., & Symonds, D. (1991). Relation between the working alliance and outcome in psychotherapy: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology , 38, 139—149.
17.
Jacobson, J.W., & Ackerman, J.J. (1989). Psychological services for persons with mental retardation and psychiatric impairments. Mental Retardation, 27, 33—36.
18.
Kivlighan, D., & Shaughnessy, P. (2000). Patterns of working alliance development: A typology of client's working alliance ratings. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 362—371.
19.
Kokotovic, A., & Tracy, T. (1990). Working alliance in the early phase of counseling . Journal of Counseling Psychology, 37, 16—21.
20.
Luborsky, L. (1994). Therapeutic alliances predictors of psychotherapy outcomes: Factors explaining the predictive success. New directions. In A. Horvath & L. Greenberg (Eds.), The working alliance: Theory, research and practice (pp. 38—50). New York: Wiley.
21.
Lustig, D.C., Strauser, D.R., Rice, N.D., & Rucker, T.F. (2002). The relationship between working alliance and rehabilitation outcomes. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin , 46, 25—33.
22.
Mallinckrodt, B., & Nelson, M. (1991). Counselor training level and the formation of the psychotherapeutic working alliance. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 133—138.
23.
Martin, D.J., Garske, J.P., & Davis, M.K. (2000). Relationship of the therapeutic alliance with outcome and other variables: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 438—450.
24.
Matson, J.L. (1984). Psychotherapy with persons who are mentally retarded . Mental Retardation, 22, 170—175.
25.
Meyer, G., Finn, S., Eyde, L., Kay, G., Moreland, K., Dies, R., et al. (2001). Psychological testing and psychological assessment: A review of evidence and issues. American Psychologist , 56, 128—165.
26.
Nezu, C.M., & Nezu, A.M. (1994). Outpatient psychotherapy for adults with mental retardation and concomitant psychopathology: Research and clinical imperatives . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychopathology, 62, 34—42.
27.
Nezu, C.M., Nezu, A.M., & Gill-Weiss, M.J. (1992). Psychotherapy in persons with mental retardation: Clinical guidelines for assessment and treatment . Champaign, IL: Research Press .
28.
Prout, H.T., & Strohmer, D.C. (1994). Counseling and psychotherapy with persons with mental retardation and borderline intelligence. Brandon, VT: Clinical Psychology Publishing .
29.
Prout, H.T., & Strohmer, D.C. (1995). Counseling persons with mental retardation: Issues and considerations. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 26(3), 49—54.
30.
Prout, H.T., & Strohmer, D.C. (1998). Issues in mental health counseling with persons with mental retardation. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 20, 112—121.
31.
Robinson, N.M., Zigler, E., & Gallagher, J.J. (2000). Two tails of the normal curve: Similarities and differences in the study of mental retardation and giftedness. American Psychologist, 55, 1413—1424.
32.
Safran, J., & Muran, J. (1998a). Negotiating the therapeutic alliance in brief psychotherapy. In J. Safran & J. Muran (Eds.), The therapeutic alliance in brief psychotherapy (pp. 3—14). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
33.
Safran, J., & Muran, J. (1998b). The therapeutic alliance in brief psychotherapy: General principles. In J. Safran & J. Muran (Eds.), The therapeutic alliance in brief psychotherapy (pp. 217—229). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
34.
Sevin, J.A., & Matson, J.L. (1994). An overview of psychopathology. In D. C. Strohmer & H. T. Prout (Eds.), Counseling and psychotherapy with persons with mental retardation and borderline intelligence (pp. 22—78). Brandon, VT: Clinical Psychology Publishing.
35.
Sovner, R., & Hurley, A.D. (1983). Do the mentally retarded suffer from affective illness?Archives of General Psychiatry,40, 61—67.
36.
Stevens, J. (1992). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum .
37.
Wampold, B. (2001). The great psychotherapy debate: Models, methods, and findings. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum .
38.
Wilson, K. (2000). Predicting vocational rehabilitation acceptance based on race, education, work status, and source of support at application . Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 43, 97—105.
39.
Wittmann, J.J.P., Strohmer, D.C., & Prout, H.T. (1989). Problems presented by persons of mentally retarded and borderline intellectual functioning in counseling: An exploratory investigation . Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 20(2), 8—13.
