HoffmanB. Scientific racism, insurance, and opposition to the Welfare state: Frederick L. Hoffman's transatlantic journey. Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era2003;2:150–90.
2.
SypherFJ. Frederick L. Hoffman: His life and works. Philadelphia: XLibris; 2002.
3.
StepanNL. The idea of race in science: Great Britain 1800–1960. London: The MacMillan Press; 1982.
4.
DawsonMM. Publications of the American Statistical Association1896.
5.
RigneyEH. Frederick L. Hoffman (unpublished biography by Hoffman's daughter), 92, Box 31, Papers of Frederick Hoffman, Rare Book Room, Columbia University.
6.
HoffmanFL. Race traits and tendencies of the American Negro. Publications of the American Economic Association1896;11(1–3):1–329.
7.
Du BoisWEB. Review of ‘Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro.’Annals of the American Academy1896;127–33.
8.
GlennBJ. Postmodernism: The basis of insurance. Risk Management and Insurance Review2003;6:131–43.
9.
ZelizerVR. Morals and markets: The development of life insurance in the United States. New Brunswick and London: Transaction Books; 1985.
10.
GenoveseED. Roll, Jordan, roll: The world the slaves made. New York: Vintage Books; 1974.
11.
KellerM. The life insurance enterprise, 1885–1910. Cambridge (MA): The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press; 1963. p. 8.
12.
MarquisJ. The Metropolitan Life: A study in business growth. New York: Viking Press; 1947. p. 55.
13.
HoffmanFL. History of the Prudential Life Insurance Company of America, 1875–1900. Newark (NJ): Prudential Press; 1900. p.137.
14.
A colored man's protest. Denunciation of Gov. Werts for his veto of an insurance bill. The New York Times1893 April 27; p. 6.
15.
Chapter CXLI, 118th Legislature of New Jersey, 1894 (1875 Apr 9).
16.
HoffmanB. The wages of sickness: The politics of health insurance in Progressive America. Chapel Hill (NC): University of North Carolina Press; 2001. Prudential derived the bulk of its business from “Industrial” or working class policies, which were inexpensive to be within reach of some African Americans.
17.
HoffmanFL. Vital statistics of the Negro. Arena1892;29:556–7.
18.
MoorheadEJ. Our yesterdays: The history of the actuarial profession in North America, 1809–1979. Schaumberg (IL): Society of Actuaries; 1989.
19.
DublinLI. A family of thirty million: The story of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. New York: Metropolitan Life Insurance Company; 1943.
