This article discusses the issue of lead contamination of drinking water, noting the various regulatory-driven measures that have been adopted in the U.S. since 1986 to address this public health issue. The article summarizes the literature on the dynamics of tap water lead contamination and discusses this widespread source of lead exposure in the context of the latest research evidence.
References
1.
Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986, Pub. L. No. 99–339 (Dec. 8, 1986).
2.
National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations. 40 CFR Part 141. FRL [1230–3]. Fed Regist1975;40(248):59566.
3.
BellingerDLevitonAWaternauxCNeedlemanHLRabinowitzM. Longitudinal analyses of prenatal and postnatal lead exposure and early cognitive development. New Engl J Med1987;316:1037–43.
4.
McMichaelAJBaghurstPAWiggNRVimpaniGVRobertsonEFRobertsRJ. Port Pirie Cohort Study: environmental exposure to lead and children's abilities at the age of four years. New Engl J Med1988;391:468–75.
5.
NeedlemanHLSchellABellingerDLevitonAAllredEN. The long-term effects of exposure to low doses of lead in childhood: an 11-year follow-up report. New Engl J Med1990;322:83–8.
6.
NeedlemanHLBellingerD. The health effects of low level exposure to lead. Annu Rev Public Health1991;12:111–40.
7.
BoisFYTozerTNZeiseLBenetLZ. Application of clearance concepts to the assessment of exposure to lead in drinking water. Am J Public Health1989;79:827–31.
8.
Lead Contamination Control Act of 1988, Pub. L. No. 100–572 (Oct 31, 1988).
9.
Environmental Protection Agency (US). Drinking water regulations: maximum contaminant level goals and national drinking water regulations for lead and copper. Fed Regist1991;53;110.
10.
Environmental Protection Agency (US). Lead and copper rule guidance manual. Vol. II: Corrosion Control Treatment. Denver: American Water Works Association; 1992.
11.
KorshinGVFergusonJFLancasterAN. Influence of natural organic matter on the corrosion of leaded brass in potable water. Corrosion Sci2000;42:53–66.
12.
RamaleyBL. Monitoring and control experience under the lead and copper rule. J Am Water Works Assoc1993;85:64–9.
13.
MaasRPPatchSCWinfieldRPopeJMorganD. Field-based corrosion control and monitoring strategies for meeting the lead and copper rule action levels. In: American Water Works Association. Proceedings of the AWWA Annual Conference; 1994 Jun 19–24; New York, NY. Denver: AWWA; 1994. p. 517–33.
14.
District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority. Testing shows flushing water 10 minutes reduces lead 95 percent [news release]; 2004 Mar 10 [cited 2004 Jun 3]. Available from: URL: http://www.dcwasa.com/news/listings/press_release146.cfm
15.
LillyPDMaasRP. The kinetics of lead leaching in domestic drinking water. In: National Council on Undergraduate Research. Proceedings of the Third National Conference on Undergraduate Research; 1990 Apr 22–25; San Antonio, TX. Vol. II. Asheville (NC): NCUR; 1990. p. 483–8.
16.
GardelsMCSorgTJ. A laboratory study of the leaching of lead from water faucets. J Am Water Works Assoc1989;81:101–13.
17.
LeeRGBeckerWCCollinsDW. Lead at the tap: sources and control. J Am Water Works Assoc1989;81:52–62.
18.
MaasRPBrownGMMorganDMPatchSCRaineyER. The rate and extent of lead leaching from faucet fixtures and hot water dispensers under laboratory conditions. Technical Report #93-009. Asheville (NC): University of North Carolina at Asheville, Environmental Quality Institute; 1993.
19.
Barclays California Code of Regulation. Register1993; Title 22, p. 179.
20.
Consent Judgment and Settlement Agreements, People v. American Standard, San Francisco, Cal., Super. Court (Aug. 1, 1995) (No. 948017).
21.
PatchSCMaasRPPopeJP. Lead leaching from faucet fixtures under residential conditions. J Environ Health1998;61:18–21.
22.
MaasRPKawaguchiHMorganDMPatchSC. Lead leaching from brass water meters under pressurized flow conditions. In: American Water Works Association. Proceedings of the AWWA Annual Conference; 1997 Jun 15–19; Atlanta, GA. Denver (CO): AW WA; 1997. p. 589–602.
23.
MaasRPPatchSC. Lead leaching from in-service residential water meters: a laboratory study. Source: J CAL-NEV Section AWWA1999;10:27–8.
24.
LanphearBDietrichKAuingerPCoxC. Cognitive deficits associated with blood lead concentrations <10 μg/dl in U.S. children and adolescents. Public Health Rep2000;115:521–9.
25.
Department of Health and Human Services (US), Food and Drug Administration. Lead in food. Part II (codified at 21 CFR ¶109 and 189). Fed Regist1993;58:117.
26.
CanfieldRLHendersonCRJrCory-SlechtaDACoxCJuskoTALanphearBP. Intellectual impairment in children with blood lead concentrations below 10 microg per deciliter. New Engl J Med2003;348:1517–26.
27.
MaasRPPatchSCParkerAF. An assessment of lead exposure potential from residential cutoff valves. J Environ Health2002;65:9–14.
28.
MaasRPPatchSC. Update on research findings and regulatory/legal activities regarding tap water lead exposure from traditional leaded-brass and “no-lead” type plumbing parts. J New Engl Water Works Assn2004;86:114–27.
