Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2026
Beyond the Likes: Investigating the Role of Social Comparison,Fear of Missing Out,and Depression in the Link between Multidimensional Facebook Use Intensity and Problematic Facebook Use
This study investigated strategies to address problematic Facebook use (PFU) among Korean university students by examining the associations between multidimensional Facebook use intensity, social comparison, fear of missing out (FoMO), depression, and PFU. Data were collected from 423 active Facebook users, mainly undergraduate students, between February 1 and 28, 2023. Participants were voluntarily recruited through student’s union. Although overall Facebook use among college-aged students has declined, these participants continued to use the platform for academic announcements, club activities, and student group communications, supporting their relevance as a study sample. Results indicated that higher multidimensional Facebook use intensity was associated with greater PFU. This pattern was observed alongside factors such as lower self-regulation and specific Facebook design features, which were linked to more intensive platform engagement. Mediation analyses suggested that higher Facebook use intensity was associated with increased social comparison, FoMO, and depressive symptoms, each of which correlated with higher PFU. Sequential mediation analysis further indicated that multidimensional Facebook use intensity may be connected to PFU through these psychological factors. These findings point to specific intervention strategies, such as promoting self-regulation skills, providing educational programs that raise awareness of the psychological effects of social comparison and FoMO, and encouraging the use of platform tools to monitor and limit excessive engagement. Such strategies may help university students engage with Facebook more mindfully, potentially reducing the negative psychological consequences of intensive social media use.
American Psychiatric Association (APA), DSM-5 Task Force. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5™ (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
2.
AndersonI. A.WoodW. (2021). Habits and the electronic herd: The psychology behind social media’s successes and failures. Consumer Psychology Review, 4(1), 83–99. https://doi.org/10.1002/arcp.1063
3.
AndreassenC. S.PallesenS.GriffithsM. D. (2017). The relationship between addictive use of social media, narcissism, and self-esteem: Findings from a large national survey. Addictive Behaviors, 64, 287–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.03.006
4.
AppelH.GerlachA. L.CrusiusJ. (2016). The interplay between Facebook use, social comparison, envy, and depression. Current Opinion in Psychology, 9, 44–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.10.006
5.
BeckA. T. (1983). Cognitive therapy of depression: New perspectives. In ClaytonP. J.BarettJ. E. (Eds.), Treatment of depression. Old controversies and new approaches (pp. 265–284). Raven Press.
6.
BergagnaE.TartagliaS. (2018). Self-esteem, social comparison, and Facebook use. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 14(4), 831–845. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v14i4.1592
7.
BlackwellD.LeamanC.TramposchR.OsborneC.LissM. (2017). Extraversion, neuroticism, attachment style and fear of missing out as predictors of social media use and addiction. Personality and Individual Differences, 116, 69–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.04.039
8.
BonfantiR. C.SalernoL.BrugneraA.Lo CocoG. (2022). A longitudinal investigation on problematic Facebook use, psychological distress and well-being during the second wave of COVID-19 pandemic. Scientific Reports, 12(1), Article 21828. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-26281-0
9.
BrailovskaiaJ.RohmannE.BierhoffH. W.SchillackH.MargrafJ. (2019). The relationship between daily stress, social support and Facebook addiction disorder. Psychiatry Research, 276, 167–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.05.014
10.
BrailovskaiaJ.StröseF.SchillackH.MargrafJ. (2020). Less Facebook use–more well-being and a healthier lifestyle? An experimental intervention study. Computers in Human Behavior, 108, Article 106332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106332
11.
CasaleS.FioravantiG. (2018). Why narcissists are at risk for developing Facebook addiction: The need to be admired and the need to belong. Addictive Behaviors, 76, 312–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.08.038
12.
ChoiY. H. (2003). The influence of stress, locus of control, and social comparison tendency on the level of depression. Master’s Thesis, Catholic University.
13.
ChouH. T. G.EdgeN. (2012). “They are happier and having better lives than I am”: The impact of using Facebook on perceptions of others’ lives. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(2), 117–121. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2011.0324
14.
CorcoranC. M.KimhyD.Parrilla-EscobarM. A.CressmanV. L.StanfordA. D.ThompsonJ.MalaspinaD.CrumbleyA.SchobelS.MooreH. (2011). The relationship of social function to depressive and negative symptoms in individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis. Psychological Medicine, 41(2), 251–261. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291710000802
15.
CramerE. M.SongH.DrentA. M. (2016). Social comparison on Facebook: Motivation, affective consequences, self-esteem, and Facebook fatigue. Computers in Human Behavior, 64, 739–746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.07.049
16.
CudoA.TorójM.DemczukM.FrancuzP. (2020). Dysfunction of self-control in Facebook addiction: Impulsivity is the key. Psychiatric Quarterly, 91(1), 91–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-019-09683-8
17.
CunninghamS.HudsonC. C.HarknessK. (2021). Social media and depression symptoms: A meta-analysis. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 49(2), 241–253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-020-00715-7
18.
DempseyA. E.O’BrienK. D.TiamiyuM. F.ElhaiJ. D. (2019). Fear of missing out (FoMO) and rumination mediate relations between social anxiety and problematic Facebook use. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 9, Article 100150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2018.100150
19.
DhirA.YossatornY.KaurP.ChenS. (2018). Online social media fatigue and psychological wellbeing—A study of compulsive use, fear of missing out, fatigue, anxiety and depression. International Journal of Information Management, 40, 141–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.01.012
20.
El AbiddineF. Z.AljaberiM. A.GadelrabH. F.LinC. Y.MuhammedA. (2022). Mediated effects of insomnia in the association between problematic social media use and subjective well-being among university students during COVID-19 pandemic. Sleep Epidemiology, 2, Article 100030. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleepe.2022.100030
21.
ElhaiJ. D.DvorakR. D.LevineJ. C.HallB. J. (2017). Problematic smartphone use: A conceptual overview and systematic review of relations with anxiety and depression psychopathology. Journal of Affective Disorders, 207, 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.030
22.
EllisonN. B.SteinfieldC.LampeC. (2007). The benefits of Facebook “friends:” Social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(4), 1143–1168. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x
23.
EllisonN. B.TriệuP.SchoenebeckS.BrewerR.IsraniA. (2020). Why we don’t click: Interrogating the relationship between viewing and clicking in social media contexts by exploring the “non-click”. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 25(6), 402–426. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmaa013
GersonJ.PlagnolA. C.CorrP. J. (2017). Passive and active Facebook use measure (PAUM): Validation and relationship to the reinforcement sensitivity theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 117, 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.05.034
26.
GibbonsF. X.BuunkB. P. (1999). Individual differences in social comparison: Development of a scale of social comparison orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(1), 129–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.1.129
27.
GoffmanE. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Doubleday.
28.
GugushviliN.TähtK.RuiterR. A.VerduynP. (2022). Facebook use intensity and depressive symptoms: A moderated mediation model of problematic Facebook use, age, neuroticism, and extraversion. BMC Psychology, 10(1), Article 279. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-022-00990-7
29.
HadlingtonL.ScaseM. O. (2018). End-user frustrations and failures in digital technology: Exploring the role of fear of missing out, internet addiction and personality. Heliyon, 4(11), Article e00872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00872
30.
HayesA. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford Press.
31.
HofstedeG. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The hofstede model in context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1), Article 8. https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014
32.
HollimanA.WaldeckD.YangT.KwanC.ZengM.AbbottN. (2022). Examining the relationship between adaptability, social support, and psychological wellbeing among Chinese international students at UK universities. Frontiers in Education, 7, Article 874326. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.874326
33.
HussainZ.StarcevicV. (2020). Problematic social networking site use: A brief review of recent research methods and the way forward. Current opinion in psychology, 36, 89–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.05.007
34.
JeonG. K.ChoiS. J.YangB. C. (2001). Development of an integrated Korean version of CES-D. Korean Journal of Health Psychology, 6(1), 59–76.
35.
JeonS.KimW. (2014). An exploratory study on the impact and interactive effects of depression and perceived social support in social networking service addiction. Health and Social Science, 35(1), 87–106.
36.
JungS.HyunM. H. (2017). Mediating effect of upward social comparison moderated by cognitive flexibility in the relationship between social networking service intensity and depression: Focused on Instagram. Korean Journal of Health Psychology, 22(4), 1035–1053.
37.
KatzE.BlumlerJ. G.GurevitchM. (1973). Uses and gratifications research. Public Opinion Quarterly, 37(4), 509–523. https://doi.org/10.1086/268109
38.
KelesB.McCraeN.GrealishA. (2020). A systematic review: The influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 79–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1590851
39.
KimH.SchlichtR.SchardtM.FlorackA. (2021). The contributions of social comparison to social network site addiction. PLoS One, 16(10), Article e0257795. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257795
40.
KimS. (2019). Fear of missing out and SNS addiction proneness: A moderated mediation model of cognitive distortion. PhD Thesis, Korea University.
41.
KoM. J.HaJ. H. (2020). The relationship between parental psychological control and SNS addiction tendency, smartphone game addiction by Male and female middle school students: The moderating effects of loneliness. Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial Cooperation Society, 21(4), 300–310.
42.
Korea Information Society Development Institute (KISDI). (2023). 2023 Media Use Behavior Survey(Policy Report No. 23-04-02).
43.
KussD. J.GriffithsM. D. (2017). Social networking sites and addiction: Ten lessons learned. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(3), Article 311. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14030311
44.
LaRoseR.MastroD.EastinM. S. (2001). Understanding internet usage: A social-cognitive approach to uses and gratifications. Social Science Computer Review, 19(4), 395–413.
45.
LearyM. R.TateE. B.AdamsC. E.Batts AllenA.HancockJ. (2007). Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(5), 887–904. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887
46.
LeeS. Y. (2014). How do people compare themselves with others on social network sites? The case of Facebook. Computers in Human Behavior, 32, 253–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.12.009
47.
MarengoD.FabrisM. A.LongobardiC.SettanniM. (2022). Smartphone and social media use contributed to individual tendencies towards social media addiction in Italian adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic. Addictive Behaviors, 126, Article 107204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107204
48.
MarinoC.GiniG.VienoA.SpadaM. M. (2018). The associations between problematic Facebook use, psychological distress and well-being among adolescents and young adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 226, 274–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.10.007
49.
MasciantonioA.BourguignonD.BouchatP.BaltyM.RiméB. (2021). Don’t put all social network sites in one basket: Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, TikTok, and their relations with well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLoS One, 16(3), Article e0248384. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248384
50.
MeshiD.EllithorpeM. E. (2021). Problematic social media use and social support received in real-life versus on social media: Associations with depression, anxiety and social isolation. Addictive Behaviors, 119, Article 106949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106949
51.
MeshiD.TamirD. I.HeekerenH. R. (2015). The emerging neuroscience of social media. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19(12), 771–782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015.09.004
52.
MoS. H. (2018). Influences of acculturation stress and social support on social withdrawal of multicultural adolescents: Moderating effects of teacher and peer-friend factors. Forum for Youth culture, 54, 67–93. https://doi.org/10.17854/ffyc.2018.04.54.67
53.
OberstU.WegmannE.StodtB.BrandM.ChamarroA. (2017). Negative consequences from heavy social networking in adolescents: The mediating role of fear of missing out. Journal of Adolescence, 55, 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.12.008
54.
O’KeeffeG. S.Clarke-PearsonK.Council on Communications and Media. (2011). Council on communications and media. The impact of social media on children, adolescents, and families. Pediatrics, 127(4), 800–804. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-0054
55.
OrbenA.PrzybylskiA. K.BlakemoreS. J.KievitR. A. (2022). Windows of developmental sensitivity to social media. Nature Communications, 13(1), Article 1649. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-29296-3
56.
OroszG.Tóth-KirályI.BőtheB. (2016). Four facets of Facebook intensity—the development of the multidimensional Facebook intensity scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 100, 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.11.038
57.
ParkH. J. (2021). A comparative study on Facebook use and life satisfaction among European and Asian university students: From the perspectives of independent individualism and interdependent collectivism. Journal of Japanese Modern Studies, 73, 25–41.
58.
ParkH. J. (2022). Impact of Facebook usage intensity on fear of missing out and depression: Moderated mediating effect of Facebook usage behaviour. Telematics and Informatics, 74, Article 101878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2022.101878
59.
ParkH. J.ParkY. B. (2023). Negative upward comparison and relative deprivation: Sequential mediators between social networking service usage and loneliness. Current Psychology, 43(10), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-05057-3
60.
PrzybylskiA. K.MurayamaK.DeHaanC. R.GladwellV. (2013). Motivational, emotional, and behavioral correlates of fear of missing out. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(4), 1841–1848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.02.014
61.
RadloffL. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
62.
ReerF.TangW. Y.QuandtT. (2019). Psychosocial well-being and social media engagement: The mediating roles of social comparison orientation and fear of missing out. New Media & Society, 21(7), 1486–1505. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818823719
63.
ReimannL. E.OzimekP.RohmannE.BierhoffH. W. (2023). Post more! the mediating role of social capital between Instagram use and satisfaction with life. Current Psychology, 42(14), 12175–12189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02579-6
64.
Rodríguez-ArduraI.Meseguer-ArtolaA. (2019). Imagine, feel “there”, and flow! immersive experiences on m-Facebook, and their affective and behavioural effects. Information Technology & People, 32(4), 921–947.
65.
RozgonjukD.ElhaiJ. D.TähtK.VassilK.LevineJ. C.AsmundsonG. J. (2019). Non-social smartphone use mediates the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and problematic smartphone use: Evidence from a repeated-measures study. Computers in Human Behavior, 96, 56–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.02.013
66.
RozgonjukD.SindermannC.ElhaiJ. D.MontagC. (2020). Fear of missing out (FoMO) and social media’s impact on daily-life and productivity at work: Do WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat use disorders mediate that association?Addictive Behaviors, 110, Article 106487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106487
SuC. C.ChanN. K. (2017). Predicting social capital on Facebook: The implications of use intensity, perceived content desirability, and Facebook-enabled communication practices. Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.058
69.
SuW.HanX.YuH.WuY.PotenzaM. N. (2020). Do men become addicted to internet gaming and women to social media? A meta-analysis examining gender-related differences in specific internet addiction. Computers in Human Behavior, 113, Article 106480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106480
70.
SunY.ZhangY. (2021). A review of theories and models applied in studies of social media addiction and implications for future research. Addictive Behaviors, 114, Article 106699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106699
71.
SzczygiełK.PodwalskiP. (2020). Comorbidity of social media addiction and other mental disorders–an overview. Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 4, 7–11. https://doi.org/10.12740/APP/122487
72.
TandocE. C.FerrucciP.DuffyM. (2015). Facebook use, envy, and depression among college students: Is Facebooking depressing?Computers in Human Behavior, 43, 139–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.10.053
73.
ThorisdottirI. E.SigurvinsdottirR.AsgeirsdottirB. B.AllegranteJ. P.SigfusdottirI. D. (2019). Active and passive social media use and symptoms of anxiety and depressed mood among Icelandic adolescents. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 22(8), 535–542. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2019.0079
74.
TurelO.BreversD.BecharaA. (2018). Time distortion when users at-risk for social media addiction engage in non-social media tasks. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 97, 84–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.11.014
75.
TwengeJ. M.CampbellW. K. (2019). Media use is linked to lower psychological well-being: Evidence from three datasets. Psychiatric Quarterly, 90(2), 311–331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-019-09630-7
76.
VerduynP.LeeD. S.ParkJ.ShablackH.OrvellA.BayerJ.KrossE.JonidesJ. (2015). Passive Facebook usage undermines affective well-being: Experimental and longitudinal evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), 480–488. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000057
77.
VerduynP.YbarraO.RésiboisM.JonidesJ.KrossE. (2017). Do social network sites enhance or undermine subjective well‐being? A critical review. Social Issues and Policy Review, 11(1), 274–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12033
78.
VogelE. A.RoseJ. P.OkdieB. M.EcklesK.FranzB. (2015). Who compares and despairs? The effect of social comparison orientation on social media use and its outcomes. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 249–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.026
79.
WegmannE.OberstU.StodtB.BrandM. (2017). Online-specific fear of missing out and internet-use expectancies contribute to symptoms of internet-communication disorder. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 5, 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2017.04.001
80.
WetherallK.CleareS.EschleS.FergusonE.O’ConnorD. B.O’CarrollR. E.O’ConnorR. C. (2018). From ideation to action: Differentiating between those who think about suicide and those who attempt suicide in a national study of young adults. Journal of Affective Disorders, 241, 475–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.07.074
81.
WolniewiczC. A.TiamiyuM. F.WeeksJ. W.ElhaiJ. D. (2018). Problematic smartphone use and relations with negative affect, fear of missing out, and fear of negative and positive evaluation. Psychiatry Research, 262, 618–623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.09.058
82.
WoodJ. V. (1996). What is social comparison and how should we study it?Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(5), 520–537. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167296225009
83.
YangC. C. (2016). Instagram use, loneliness, and social comparison orientation: Interact and browse on social media, but don’t compare. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 19(12), 703–708. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2016.0201
84.
YangI.HwangS. (2018). Effects of university students’ social comparison orientation on their SNS addiction through self-esteem. Journal of Korean Academy of Community Health Nursing, 29(3), 371–381.
85.
YoonS.KleinmanM.MertzJ.BrannickM. (2019). Is social network site usage related to depression? A meta-analysis of Facebook–depression relations. Journal of Affective Disorders, 248, 65–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.01.026
